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SEELEY'S 

QUESTION BOOK 

CONTAINING 

Methods of Teaching all Subjects Commonly Taught in the 

Public Schools, together with Questions and 

Answers Fully Covering these 

Subjects. 

FOR TEACHERS' USE IN PERSONAL REVIEW, PREPARA- 
TION FOR THE RECITATION OR IN ACTUAL CLASS WORK 



BY 

LEVI SEELEY, Ph. D., 

Professor of Pedagogy in the Trenton, New Jersey, State Normal 
School, Author of "History of Education," "The Founda- 
tions of Education," "A New School Management," 
etc., etc. 

AND 

NELLIE G, PETTICREW 

of the Piqua, Ohio, Public Schools. 




1905 

F. A. OWEN PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

DANSVILLE, N. Y. 



v^^^^ 



LIBRARY of OGN««£SS 
Ywu Copies rtocmvotl 

APR 24 19U5 

^opvngnt tniry 

CiUSS A XAc. NUi 



Copyright, 1905, 

F. A. Owen Publishing Co., 

Dansville, N. Y. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter Page 

—Preface ...... = . .5 

I.— Introduction 7 

II. — Reading 12 

-/j 1 1.— English and American Literature ... 30 

TV. — Orthography 65 

V. — Grammar and Composition 89 

VI. — Arithmetic 125 

aVII.— Algebra 151 

■7 VIII. — Physiology AND Hygiene 169 

IX. — Geography 200 

X.— United States History 281 

XL— Civics 335 

>-.XII. — School Management 355 

XIII. — Methods OF Teaching 376 

XIV.— Nature Study 389 

XV. — Current Events 395 

XVI. — Drawing 401 

XVI I. — Writing 407 

XVI 1 1.— Manners and Morals 412 



PREFi^CE. 

THERE are many books on each of the subjects of 
the common school course, some of which clearly 
state what they desire to accomplish, while others 
express no clearly defined aim. There is also a respec- 
table list of books bearing upon the pedagogy of reading, 
arithmetic, history, grammar, etc. To those teachers 
who possess a library of works bearing upon all the 
themes taught in our schools, this book may not appeal. 
But to the thousands of young teachers who have had 
but little experience and few advantages, who cannot 
afford to buy a book bearing upon each subject, and yet 
who are earnestly seeking to do the best they can in the 
schoolroom, it is sincerely hoped that this volume will 
bring a message and be a blessing. 

Brief statements concerning the aim to be sought are 
made at the beginning of each chapter so that the teacher 
may start out with a definite purpose in mind. No 
attempt is made to tell the whole story, by any means. 
It is hoped that these discussions will create a taste for 
better things and awaken a desire for more knowledge 
upon the themes treated. To suggest means of satisfy- 
ing that anticipated desire, I have cited many books in 
the foot-notes, which will furnish material for wider 
study. No book is mentioned that I have not carefully 
examined, and that I do not vouch for. 



6 PREFACE 

Great care has been exercised in the construction of 
the questions and answers, which form the large part of 
the book, to make them clear, concise, logical, and suffi- 
ciently complete. The chief part of this work has been 
performed by Miss Nellie G. Petticrew, of Piqua, Ohio. 

It is hoped that these questions will furnish an abun- 
dance of material, not only for class exercises, drills, 
reviews, tests, etc., but that they will also assist the 
teachers in obtaining information for their own upbuild- 
ing. Every teacher knows how important it is to have 
an abundance of material outside of the regular text- 
book, and how much labor it costs to collect it. This 
book, therefore, will save the over- worked teacher a 
great deal of labor and enable him to devote strength to 
other channels. Its aim is to help and, bless the com- 
mon school teacher. 

Levi Seeley. 

State Normal School^ Trenton^ N. J. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

EVERY young teacher, no matter what his previous 
training has been, is often puzzled as to the proper 
material to be presented to his pupils, and as to 
the ends which he should definitely seek to reach. As 
a consequence of this perplexity there is a great deal of 
waste effort and loss of time. It is like a man lost in 
a pathless desert, or in a vast forest with no sign-board 
to guide or no star in the heavens to beckon him to 
safety. He wanders in bewilderment and confusion, 
often finding after long and weary effort that he has 
been moving in a circle and that his most anxious 
endeavors have brought him no nearer his goal. Cer- 
tainly this picture is not overdrawn so far as the inexperi- 
enced teacher is concerned, or with many young teach- 
ers. Very often the new teacher finds neither course of 
study nor definitely outlined work to assist him, and 
like the mariner upon the wide sea without chart or com- 
pass, he may drift with the current or even steer his 
craft in the wrong direction. 

With the over-crowded curriculum, with the many 
new subjects demanding a hearing, with the greater 
thoroughness expected in those subjects that have 
already won recognition, and with the increasing demand 
that pupils shall be earlier prepared for the responsibili- 
ties of life, even experienced educators are at a loss as to 
the best and most profitable material to be presented to 
the child. How much more must the novice in the 



8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

work of teaching find himself bewildered at the great 
problem confronting him. No wonder that he takes the 
text-books at hand and blindly follows their pages as 
others have done before him, with the narrow idea that 
the purpose of the school is to put the pupils through as 
many books as possible. It is an old saying that the 
school is for the child, but it needs often to be reiterated. 
The child should be the center of all educational thought 
and purpose. There is a great difference between the 
above two conceptions, namely, — ^education consists in 
filling the mind with knowledge, and education consists 
in the development of the child. I would have the 
teacher early conceive the purpose of education as set 
forth in the second definition, and bring to bear all the 
forces of intelligence, knowledge and training in the 
effort to attain that end. The object of this book is to 
assist in this important work. 

According to the report of the United States Commis- 
sioner of Education, the American child attends school 
an average of about five years of two hundred days each. 
This means, then, that the most important work of the 
great body of American teachers must be accomplished 
with the mass of children before their eleventh or twelfth 
year, while they are still in the common school. If educa- 
tion is essential to American citizenship, the most impor- 
tant factor in engendering patriotism, in preparing to 
earn a livelihood, in fortifying against evil habits, and 
in preparing for a just conception of duty towards fellow- 
beings and towards God, is the common school teacher. 
It is he who must shape the ideals, lay the foundations, 
and carry out the training that will have for its fruitage 
intelligent, self-respecting, law-abiding, industrious, 
duty-loving. God-fearing men and women. This is the 
great mission of the common school teacher and there is 
no nobler mission on earth! 



INTRO DUCTIOJV 9 

But what are the specific subjects that are to be 
employed in the school in attaining these results? In 
other words, what have the parents a right to expect 
that the common school shall accomplish with and for 
their children ? Surely this is a fair and a practical 
question the answer to which must not be shirked. It is 
fair because the people are spending colossal sums of 
money upon their schools, and devoting a great deal of 
thought and self-sacrifice to the education of their chil- 
dren. They are entitled to know that their money is 
well spent and that the years in which they give up their 
children are not being wasted. The teacher is the 
educational expert put in charge of the school and he 
must be held answerable for results. If this is not true 
there is no excuse for the Normal School, the training 
class, or the institute maintained at public expense for 
the preparation of teachers. The schoolroom is the 
domain of the teacher where the full responsibility must 
be assumed and carried out by an expert in charge. The 
office of the people is to furnish abundant means for the 
maintenance of the school, sustain the teacher in wise 
regulations in regard to discipline, punctuality, regu- 
larity, etc., and give such moral support as is possible in 
matters of home-work, maintaining the good reputation 
of the school, and holding up the hands of the teacher. 
Having lived up to these requirements, they have done 
their part and have a right to expect the teacher to do 
his. 

It is a practical question for the obvious reason that 
the pupils are being prepared for life, and surely the 
parents have a right to know what end is sought and 
how well that end is being attained. If teachers would 
give more attention to this question, would take a com- 
prehensive view of the whole work before them, in a 
word, would see "The future man in the boy before 



lO 



SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 



them," there would be less criticism from parents of 
the work that the school accomplishes. 

I would answer the question as follows: The child at 
the completion of the common school course should be 
able, — 

1. To speak and write the English language accu- 
rately, not merely from habit, which of course is of chief 
importance, but also with a knowledge of the underlying 
reasons as taught by grammar. The power of express- 
ing one's self well, whether in speaking or writing, is an 
important essential to success in life. 

2. To spell correctly such words as he will need to use 
in letter- writing or composition, and to write legibly. 

3. To read from a newspaper or ordinary book with 
clear enunciation, correct pronunciation, and such under- 
standing as not only to gain the meaning himself but to 
convey it to others when reading aloud. 

4. To be master of such arithmetical knowledge as is 
necessary for the ordinary affairs of life. 

5. To be familiar with the history of our own country 
and possess some acquaintance, with the most important 
events in the world's history. 

6. To know the elementary processes in our scheme of 
government so as to be able to act the part of intelligent 
and patriotic citizenship when called upon to do so. 

7. To possess a good knowledge of the geography of 
our own country and a general knowledge of the geogra- 
phy of the whole world. 

8. To understand the structure, nourishment, support, 
and care of the human body. 

9. To know something of elementary science so as to 
comprehend the ordinary phenomena of the world about 
him. 



INTRODUCTION ii 

10. In addition to these he will know many things that 
cannot well be formulated; such as, music, drawing, 
handiwork, and, in its broadest sense, moral living. 

This is not too much to demand of the school for every 
normal child that is fully committed to its influence for 
the complete common school course. If the above 
results are not attained the parent may justly complain. 
If the teacher has such a definite purpose before him it 
may be expected that far better results can be secured 
and higher ideals reached. 

Having the purpose of the common school clearly in 
mind and the end to be aimed at before us, we may turn 
to a discussion of each of the individual subjects through 
which that purpose and that end will be secured. The 
plan pursued in the succeeding chapters is, first, a general 
statement of the aim to be reached in the subject under 
discussion; and second, a series of questions bearing 
upon that subject, logically arranged and sufficiently 
complete fully to illustrate the purpose sought. There 
will be ample references showing sources drawn from and 
also suggesting further material for such as are able to 
go deeper into any given theme. This plan, it is hoped, 
will serve to clarify educational work in the mind of the 
teacher, and at the same time be a source of information, 
instruction and help. 



CHAPTER II. 

READING. 

THE MOST important subject of the school course 
is reading in its broadest sense. The ability to 
read is the key to all future educational success. 
It opens the door to all knowledge and furnishes the 
individual with a means for future self-improvement. 
Literature, history, science, art, as well as a knowledge 
of passing events of the world, are revealed to him 
through this means in newspapers, magazines, and books. 
Hence, reading is first in importance in the work that 
the school undertakes. It is also first in point of time. 
The child begins to learn to read the first day he enters 
school, and the progress of his formal education can be 
measured at first by his progress in reading. He must 
possess this key to knowledge before he can enter other 
fields. The discussion of this question, and a proper 
understanding of the ends to be sought in reading must 
be considered of paramount importance. 

What are the ends to be sought in reading? I think 
that a twofold purpose must be in the mind of the 
teacher; namely, the form and the conUnt of. reading. 
Under /o?'m we include the correct articulation and pro- 
nunciation of words, proper inflection, and emphasis. 
The child must learn to pronounce the words instan- 
taneously and correctly at sight and with clear articula- 
tion. He must not need to spell out the word, but 
must grasp it as a whole. Whether the word or the idea 
IS comprehended first is not under consideration, but the 



READING 13 

probabilities are that both are grasped simultaneously. 
In any case, the word and its meaning must both be 
known. Nor does the method of securing this result 
come under discussion here. Whatever the method 
employed, the aim must be to give the child a fluent, 
accurate, clear and natural pronunciation. 

There must also be a natural rendering of the sentence 
as a whole, giving proper emphasis and inflection so 
that the meaning will be clear to the hearer. This can 
be brought about only by a great deal of practice and 
drill. Natural and pleasant expression is likely to be 
obtained only when the child has comprehended the 
thought, which he, in turn, gives to others in the form 
of reading. 

Having overcome the mechanical difficulties, the atten- 
tion is turned more and more to the content^ or thought 
side of reading, which is by far the more important 
object to be sought. There is but little value in reading 
which is mere calling of words, however accurately they 
may be spoken or however pleasantly the sentence may 
be rendered. Hence the modern idea of reading calls 
for many things to read, rather than the constant and 
painful repetition of the same pieces as was the custom 
in the old time school and with the earlier reading books. 
The carrying out of this idea has led publishers to place 
many of the richest gems of literature within the reach 
of all, so that, while the child is learning to read, he may 
also lay the foundations of a good taste and knowledge 
of English and American literature. Instead of forming 
a love for trash he may come in contact with the very 
best that the language affords. Herein lies one of the 
greatest opportunities of the teacher. ^, It is as easy to 
form good habits of reading as to form bad ones, and the 
teacher would be seriously wanting in appreciation of his 
opportunity who failed to select from the abundance of 



14 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

pure and suitable literature now within his reach, and 
lead his pupils to read and love it. A wise selection of 
literature will afford a content in the child's mind of 
pure and noble thoughts and do much in shaping his 
moral life. The child will also commit to memory many 
gems of literature at that period when memory is most 
retentive. 

With this foundation, laid in connection with his read- 
ing lessons, the child will know what is the best litera- 
ture, and have opened to him avenues of information 
and literary enjoyment which will be likely to influence 
his whole future life. 

To recapitulate, then, the aim to be sought in reading 
is to give the pupil the ability to read distinctly and 
with proper inflection, and to establish in him, by an 
abundance of pure and standard material a good literary 
taste and a knowledge of and liking for the great masters 
of English. 

Questions and Answers. 

/. What is reading? 

Reading is getting thought from the printed page. 

2. Define reading as an art. 

Reading as an art is the interpretation and expression 
of thought, sentiment, and emotion as found in written 
or printed composition. 

J. Why do we read? 

To gain practical guidance in every day affairs; to be 
helped by the experiences of others; to share in the 
learning and wisdom of the past; to obtain pleasure, 
knowledge and moral uplift. 

/J.. What are the physical requisites for good reading ? 



READING 15 

A well controlled and modulated voice, distinct articu- 
lation, clear enunciation, healthy and free respiration. 

5. What mental eqidpnient does a good reader need? 
Keen perception, clear conception, vivid imagination, 

broad and genuine sympathy, strong imitative powers, 
well cultivated taste and judgment, artistic skill. 

6. What is articulation ? 

Articulation is the utterance of the elementary sounds 
of a language, and of their combinations. 

y. What is the difference between enunciation and 
pronunciation ? 

Enunciation means the manner of uttering words; 
pronunciation is the utterance of the words in accord- 
ance with the laws of accent, sound, etc. 

8. What are some of the most common errors in 
articulation ? 

The omission of the vowel sounds in unaccented syl- 
lables; the incorrect articulation or use of vowel sounds; 
dropping the sound of terminal letters; adding or 
omitting syllables; blending the ending of one word with 
the word following. 

g. How may such faults be remedied? 

By careful practice in the utterance of the elementary 
sounds, and a close observance of the phonetic analysis 
of words. 

10. What is an elementary sound? 

An elementary sound is a simple, distinct sound. 

//. Name and define the classes of elementary sounds. 

Vocals, consisting of pure tones only. Subvocals, the 
obstructed sounds. Aspirates, sounds produced by the 
breath alone. 



i6 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

12. What is the standard of pronunciation ? 

Thcj ultimate standard of pronunciation for a language 
is the usage which prevails among the best educated 
portion of the people to whom the language is vernacu- 
lar, particularly those gifted as public speakers. 

7j. What is accent ? 

Accent is the prominence given to one syllable over 
another in a word. 

I /J.. Name aiid illustrate kinds of accent. How indicated ? 

The primary, or strong accent; the secondary, or weak 
accent. The former is usually designated by a heavy 
accentual mark; the latter, by a light mark: as care'- 
worn', con'tradict'. 

75. What of the laws of accent ? 

There is no definite law of accent for the English lan- 
guage. The tendency is to place the chief accent near 
to, or at, the beginning of a word. In many cases of 
two-syllable words the verb has the final accent and the 
noun or adjective the other: contest' (verb), con'test 
(noun). 

16. What is emphasis f 

Emphasis is a special stress of voice upon one or more 
words of a sentence. 

77. What is the object of emphasis ? 

The object of emphasis is to attract attention to some 
particular word, thus indicating that the idea to be con- 
veyed depends especially upon that word, 

18. How are emphatic words distingtiishd in print f 
By using italics^ small capitals, or CAPITALS. 

79. In what three ways may words be emphasised? 
By pronouncing the word with increased force; by 
inflection; by prolonging the vowel or liquid sound. 



READING 17 

20. What are the two kinds of emphasis ? Define eacJi. 
When a word is emphasized simply to indicate the 

importance of an idea, the emphasis is said to be abso- 
lute. When there is an antithesis, expressed or implied, 
the emphasis is relative. 

21. What is the value of emphasis in reading? 
Emphasis constitutes the most important feature in 

reading or speaking, and, if properly used, gives life 
and character to language. 

22. What is necessary that a person inay properly ein- 
phasize what he is reading? 

A thorough understanding of the thoughts which the 
language is meant to convey, and a just appreciation of 
their relative values. 

2^. What are inflections ? 

Inflections are the turns or slides in the voice, used in 
reading or speaking. 

2^. Name^ define^ and illustrate kinds of inflections. 

The rising inflection or upward slide of the voice, 
marked ('). Are you hurt?' The falling inflection, or 
downward slide of the voice, marked f). I am not 
hurt.'^ The circumflex, a union of the rising and falling 
inflections, marked (A)- Is he old' or is he young ?^ He 
is old,^ not young/ 

25. When should each be used? 

The falling inflection is generally used whenever the 
sense is complete. When the sense is incomplete or the 
meaning demands a pause, the rising inflection is used. 
The circumflex is used chiefly to indicate the emphasis 
of irony, doubt, supposition, or contrast. 

26. What is a monotone ? 



i8 SEELE V'S Q UESTION BOOR' 

A monotone is an unvaried tone throughout a sentence 
or discourse. 

2y. When is it permissible ? 

It may be used to express solemnity or sublimity of 
thought, or intensity of feeling. It is used, also when 
the entire sentence is emphatic, 

28. What is modulation ? 

Modulation is the variation of sounds in speaking, 
caused by the proper use of tone, pitch, force, emphasis, 
and inflection, and prompted by the feelings and emo- 
tions which the subject inspires. 

2g. Define pitch. Compass. 

Pitch is the highness or lowness of voice as related to 
a definite key. The range of the voice above and below 
this key-note is its compass. 

JO. What is force? 

Force is the loudness of the voice, or degree of energy, 
with which sounds are uttered. 

J 7. What is stress ? 

Stress is the manner in which force is applied. 

J2. What is movement ? 

Movement is the rate or speed of utterance. 

jj. Distinguish betwee^i quality and quantity. 

Quality has reference to the kind of sound; quantity 
to the volume of sound. The quantity and quality of 
tone should always correspond with the nature of the 
subject. 

j^. What is a pure tone ? 

A pure tone is a clear, smooth, flowing sound, in 
moderate pitch. It is adapted to the expression of 
solemn, serious, tranquil, descriptive, and didactic 
thought. 



READING 19 

J5. What is the orotund quality ? 

It is the full, deep, round, pure tone of voice, adapted 
to the expression of sublime, pathetic, and reverential 
emotions. 

^6. What is a climax ? 

A climax is a sentence, or succession of sentences, in 
which each idea rises in importance, force, or dignity 
above that which precedes it. It should be read with a 
gradual increase in intensity, and a change in pitch and 
movement. 

J/. What is a pause ? 

A suspension of the voice in reading or speaking. 

j<5*. Name and define the kinds of pauses. 

Grammatical pauses are those indicated by punctua- 
tion marks. Rhetorical pauses are suspensions of the 
voice for the purpose of emphasis, or to give clearer 
expression to what is read. Poetical pauses are used to 
make prominent the melody of the measure, and in 
rhyme, to allow the ear to appreciate the harmony of 
similar sounds. Caesural pauses are metrical breaks in 
poetry, demanded by the meaning. 

jp. What are rhetorical points ? 

Characters used to mark the divisions in composition. 
They are: the comma(,); semicolon (;); colon (:); 
period (.); interrogation point (?) ; exclamation point (!); 
dash ( — ) ; parenthesis ( ) ; brackets [ ] ; quotation marks 
(" "). 

/J.0, Name the etytnological points and tell for what 
used. 

^The apostrophe (') used to mark the omission of a let- 
ter. The caret (A) to show the omission of a word. 
The diaeresis (••) to mark the separation of contiguous 



20 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

vowels. Marks of quantity ( a a a ) to show the length 
of vowel sounds. Marks of accent — the grave(^), the 
acute (0, and the circumflex (a) The h3^phen (-) used to 
separate parts of compound words, or syllables. 

^i. What are the points of reference ? 

The asterisk (*), dagger (f), double dagger (J), sec- 
tion (§), parallel (||), and paragraph (^). These marks 
are used to refer the reader to some other part or page of 
the book. 

^2, Give rules for the use of the comma. 
The comma is used: 

(1) To separate a series of words or ohrases in the 
same construction: Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing 
onward through life he goes. 

(2) To separate introductory phrases and clauses 
from the word they modify: The boat having 
anchored, the passengers disembarked. 

(3) To separate short and closely connected mem- 
bers of compound sentences: I love my country, 
therefore I will defend her. 

(4) To separate a long complicated subject, or 
one ending in a verb, from its predicate: He who 
is not worried over trifles, is able to bear great 
misfortunes. 

(5) To separate non-restrictive phrases and 
clauses from the words they modify : Rising in his 
place, he addressed the chairman of the meeting. 

(6) To separate contrasted elements: We live in 
deeds, not years. 

(7) To separate appositive, parenthetical, or 
independent elements: He invented, it is said, more 
than one hundred machines. 

(8) To separate transposed words, phrases, and 
clauses: In whatever he undertakes, he succeeds. 



READING 21 

(9) To separate a direct quotation from the rest 
of the sentence: Then Agrippa said unto Paul, 
** Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." 

(10) To show the ellipsis of a verb: You seek 
wealth, I, honor. 

4.J. When should the semicolon be used? 
The semicolon is used: 

(1) To separate short, slightly connected sen- 
tences: The flowers bloom; the birds sing; all 
nature is glad. 

(2) Before as^ namely^ viz., introducing an exam- 
ple for illustration: A noun is a name; as, Mary, 
Tom. 

(3) Before an example introduced by for or but, 
and showing reason or contrast: Rejoice the soul of 
thy servant; for unto thee, O Lord, I lift my soul. 

(4) Before a series of expressions having a com- 
mon dependence: The speaker asserted that the 
people were oppressed; that they were overtaxed; 
and that they had no means of redress. 

^/j.. When is the colon used? 
The colon is used: 

(1) After a formal introduction to a speech, a 
quotation, etc., or the address at the beginning of a 
letter: — Dear Sir: — ^ Please send, etc. 

(2) Between parts of a compound sentence in 
which semicolons have been used: We saw the 
shadov/ moving along the dial; we saw the home- 
ward bound peasants: so we turned our faces toward 
the city, leaving the mountains behind us. 

(3) In titles of books, etc. : A History of Gram- 
mar: A Complete Account of the Formation and 
Growth of the Language. 



22 SEE LEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

^5. What is the rule for the use of the comma ^ semicolon 
and colon in a sentence ? 

When pauses of three degrees of strength occur in a 
sentence, the weakest requires the comma, the stronger, 
the semicolon; and the strongest the colon. 

"There are visions of conquests, of splendor, and mirth. 

Floating over each drear winter's day ; 
But the tintings of Hope, on his storm-beaten earth. 

Will melt like the snowflakes away. ' ' 

4.6. When is the period used? 

The period is used after complete sentences, titles, and 
abbreviations: The horse is lame. A book of verse. 
By Rev. Thos. Green. 

^7. What other punctuation marks are used at the end 
of sentences ? 

The exclamation mark is used after an exclamatory- 
sentence: Alas, his fate is sealed! 

The interrogation point is used after an interrogative 
sentence: Where is my book? 

4.8. In what way should the dictionary help in the study 
of reading ? 

The dictionary should be placed convenient for use 
and pupils encouraged to consult it freely. They should 
be taught to look up the meaning of all words whose 
meaning they do not know, and to depend upon the 
dictionary for help in spelling and pronunciation. 

4.(). What instruction sJiould be given theinas to its use? 

They should be taught how to find words; the use of 
the diacritical marks, and the determination of correct 
pronunciation from these marks; where to find special 
words, as Scripture names, foreign phrases, biographical 
and geographical names, abbreviations etc. ; how to 
find the history and origin of words; how to determine 
the meaning of the word in the particular sense where 
it is used. 



READING 23 

50. What are the purposes in teaching reading ? 
To enable the child to get the thought from the printed 
page and to give that thought to others. 

5/. What knowledge should the teacher possess before 
attempti7ig to teach a child to read? 

He should know something of the child's home life 
and environment, with what classes of objects he is 
familiar, and what is his range of thought and language. 

^2. What should precede the study of written word 
forrns ? 

Conversation and language lessons, b)^ which the child 
will become accustomed to his new environment, gain 
self-confidence, and learn to express his thoughts freely. 
Such lessons will also enable the teacher to understand 
the child better, and will show him the extent of the 
child's ideas and the limitations of his knowledge. 

5J. What are the essentials of reading? 

Mastery of the form and sound of words; ability to 
pronounce new words; an understanding of the meaning 
of words; the power to picture the things which the 
words describe. 

^5. Give some suggestions for first lessons in reading. 

Choose such sentences for the first lessons as possess 
vital interest for the child. Read the sentence to him 
and have him repeat it. Add other sentences bearing 
upon the same subject and read them in the same way. 
At first this will not be reading on the part of the 
child, but mere repetition. Very soon, however, he will 
learn to distinguish the words, and then to recognize 
them when placed in new relations. 

Such words should be used as are easiest to recognize, 
— not the shortest words, but nouns, adjectives, and 
action words that represent things with which the child 



24 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

is familiar. A few such phrases as, I am, he was, etc., 
may be taught as a whole. 

These little lessons should be arranged as short stories 
and written in such a way as to arouse and hold the 
child's interest. 

After each practice lesson in reading, there should be 
a thorough drill in recognizing and pronouncing words. 

This work should be kept up until the child has 
acquired a working vocabulary of at least one hundred 
words. 

55. What should be the order in teaching words to a 
child? 

A child should first hear the word, then pronounce it, 
then compare it with other words, afterwards distinguish 
its sounds, and finally separate it into its component 
letters. 

^6. When should the sounds of letters be taught ? 

After the child has gained a small reading vocabulary, 
he should begin to compare the words he knows. He 
will readily see the resemblance between such words as 
fall and call, and will easily recognize other words with 
similar endings. Then he should be taught the sounds 
of the initial letters, singly and in combination with the 
sounds he already knows. 

57. How long should the study of sou7id be continued? 

Through the first four or five years of school life, or 
until the child has mastered the sounds of the letters 
and can use this knowledge in recognizing and pronoun- 
cing new words. 

^8. Should the diacritical marks be taught ? 

With the younger children, if these marks have been 
taught in connection with the key-word, they will be 
helpful. But children may be taught to pronounce cor- 



READING 25 

rectly without them. With the older pupils who use the 
dictionary, they are quite necessary, and the complete 
list of them should be learned. 

5p. What should be the result of this kind of word 
study ? 

By the use of the various phonograms which he has 
learned, the child should be able to pronounce readily all 
new words, without help from the teacher, and thus be 
able to master the lessons for himself. 

60. Is a child who has gained this mastery of words 
able to read? 

He is not. This is one of the essentials of reading but 
not its aim. He has mastered the vehicle of thought 
when he has learned to pronounce words but he has not 
gained the thought itself. 

61. After a child has learried to pronounce and recog- 
nize words^ what should he then learn ? 

Their meaning should be taught. As a rule, the first 
words which the child is taught are those with whose 
meaning he is familiar, and but little time need be spent 
upon this part of the work. But as he advances new 
words will be presented and he needs to be carefully 
taught their meaning, 

62. To what should the first efforts of the teacher be 
directed^ ift beginning the teaching of a new reading 
lesson f 

He should seek to find out how much the child knows, 
how much he can find out for himself of what he does 
not know, and how much he needs to be instructed. 

<5j. Suggest some ways by which this may be done. 

All reading lessons should be preceded by conversation 
upon some topic of the lesson, with which the child is 
familiar. The pupil should talk, the teacher question, 



26 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

and listen. In this way the interest of the child will be 
quickened and the teacher will learn where his knowl- 
edge is deficient. Before any attempt is made to read 
the lesson, all new words should be studied. Not the 
lists arranged in the text book, but those selected from the 
lesson by the pupil and the teacher. Such words should 
be mastered as to form and sound, then by skillful ques- 
tioning their meaning should be found out and learned. 

64.. What should follozv tlie study of the ineaning of 
words ? 

The getting of the thought which the words are 
intended to convey. 

6^. Illustrate how this may be done. 

Children should learn from the first that words are 
used to express ideas and that every word in a sentence 
has its own meaning and use. 

"My little white kittie is asleep on my knee; 
As white as the snow on the lillies is she. " 

The child reads this couplet. What does it tell him ? 
What is asleep? Where? Whose kitty? Why kitty 
instead of cat? How do you know it is small? What 
color is it? How white? Which word tells what we are 
talking about ? Which one tells what kitty is doing? 
Which one tells us how big kitty is? Which one tells us 
the color ? Which ones help us to know certainly about 
that color? 

Such questions will clarify the child's thought and lead 
him to see the value of the words. It will also lead the 
child to look for the thought words in other sentences 
and assist him in mastering: them. 



'& 



66. When sliould a child be made to study for himself? 

From the ver)?- first he should be taught how to study 

and be required to do so to the limit of his ability. If 



READING 27 

he has learned to recognize a few words, let him find 
those words in his book. If he has advanced farther, 
allow him to use all the knowledge he has. The most 
essential thing in all teaching is to train the child to self- 
activity — not to do for him, but to teach him to do for 
himself. 

6j. What should follow the ''thought getting'' of the 
reading lesson ? Why ? 

The "thought giving." First, that the teacher may- 
discover what thoughts have been gained. Second, that 
these thoughts may be shared with others. 

68. What is the basis of good oral reading? 
Good expression. 

6g. Upon what is good expression dependent ? 

Upon the mastery of words as to form, pronunciation, 
and meaning; upon the mastery of the thought of the 
sentence ; upon the vividness of the reader's imagination ; 
upon his desire to impart his knowledge to others; and 
upon his personal interest m what he is reading. 

JO. In what ways may the imagination be strengthened? 

By apt questions; by the pupil's description of the 
pictures of the lesson as he sees them; by dramatization; 
by drawing of the pictures which the lesson suggests. 

77. What is a good rule for choosing reading for 
children ? 

Always choose what is good that the little child may 
curly learn to love those things which are "pure, lovely, 
and of good report." Choose v/hat you like yourself, 
because you can best give to others what is best to you. 
Choose what the child likes, for we must begin at the 
child level, and lead him to higher planes of appreciation 
and thought. 



28 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

'/2. Give a suggestive outline as to kind of reading and 
stories suited to children of various ages. 

Nature, or human experience is the basis of all litera- 
ture. The little child knows more of the former than of 
the latter, hence in arranging reading matter for him, 
we should choose such stories as appeal to his knowledge 
of the natural world, or his childish imagination. The 
character of the literature should change as the child 
advances, and should ultimately lead to his acquaintance 
with the world of nature and the world of human thought 
and feeling. 

The following general outline may be found helpful: 

First Year. — Fairy stories. Stories of Indian children. 
Stories of Joseph, Moses, and Daniel. These stories 
to be told by the teacher and reproduced by the 
child. 

Stories of the cat and dog. Stories based upon the 
child's observation of nature in the changing weather, 
germination of seeds, and similar subjects. 

Second Year. — Fairy stories. Stories of the Indians; of 
the Pilgrims, Biographical stories of Washington 
and Columbus. Story of Samuel and David. Stories 
of domestic animals; of common insects and birds. 

Literature. — Hiawatha's Childhood. Child stories 
from Dickens. 

Third Year. — Fairy stories. History stories of local 
interest. Stories of Colonial home life. Stories 
from the "Seven Little Sisters." Stories of the 
migration of birds; of their nest building. Stories 
of the squirrel and rabbit. 

Literature. — Bible stories. Hiawatha Blessing 
the Cornfields, and Hiawatha's Hunting. Stories 
from Dickens. 

Fourth Year, — ^Myths and legends of Greece; of our 
own country. History stories of local interest and 



READING 29 

stories of pioneers. Biographical stories of inven- 
tors. Story of the life of Lincoln. Stories in connec- 
tion with study of grains, trees and insects. 

Literature. — Hiawatha's Canoe Building. Stories 

from Kipling's Jungle Books. "The Courtship of 

Miles Standish." Memorize "Barbara Frietchie," 

or some other historical poem. 

With such a foundation, pupils should now be ready 

for some of the choice literary products which form a 

part of the permanent literature of the world.. However, 

the lines of study and reading will be about the same as 

those of the first years of school life. 

First. — The study of myths. They are the record of 
the primitive life of the race, typify all its virtues, 
put meaning into all other knowledge, and are the 
foundation of all subsequent literature. 
Second. — ^The traditional stories and historical legends 
of the nations. The tales of chivalry, many of 
which are found in the ballads of various countries. 
Third. — Stories of history and biography. Hero 
stories of explorers, settlers, and pioneers. Biogra- 
phies of some of the great men, especially of our 
own land. 
Fourth. — Stories of American life and interests. 
Poems of history and stories founded upon historical 
events. 
Fifth. — The study of nature as interpreted by poetry 
and prose literature. These materials should be 
carefully selected and adapted to the needs and capa- 
bilities of the child. 
In the advanced grades, where history is taught, selec- 
tions from our own authors should be taught. Also 
such orations, poems, essays and songs, as are typical of 
our national life and progress, and tend to inspire and 
foster sentiments of patriotism and national pride. 



CHAPTER III. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN 
LITERATURE 

IN THE preceding chapter I have shown that litera- 
ture is to be closely connected with the work in 
reading. It now remains to suggest the character 
of works from which selections may be made. The 
questions and answers which follow outline not only the 
great works that have appeared in the English tongue, 
but also their authors, together with the periods in which 
they wrote. The student will thus find an historic and 
systematic arrangement whereby he may obtain a com- 
prehensive view of the whole field of English and Ameri- 
can literature. 

To such as may desire to obtain a wider knowledge of 
this subject than is possible in connection with the read- 
ing lesson, the plan followed in these questions and an- 
swers, together with the valuable information furnished, 
will be an excellent guide. Only a skeleton of the work 
of this vast field is given, and this is all that is possible 
here. No student should be content with a study of 
this mere outline. The skeleton must be clothed with 
flesh by turning to biographies of the authors named, and 
to their productions. Literary taste is acquired by read 
ing literature, and the kind of taste acquired will depend 
upon the character of the literature studied, as I have 
already shown. 

Let the reader, then, in addition to a careful study of 
the material here given, enter into such a field as his taste 



LITERATURE 



31 



demands and pursue that until the desiivid result has 
been obtained. The outline here presented should aid 
in a systematic and thorough knowledge of English liter- 
ature. The multiplication of libraries abundantly sup- 
plied with standard works makes such study possible. 

It is suggested that a note-book should be kept, in 
which may be entered quotations, facts, outlines, and 
other material worthy of remembering or referring to, 
citing page and edition. The student who follows this 
plan will be saved from a great deal of waste effort, and 
will soon come into an accurate knowledge of the riches 
of literature that have been accumulating for many cen- 
turies like a mighty stream, and to which the noblest 
and greatest minds of the world have contributed. Until 
inspiration and power have been gained by such study 
and such acquaintance, the end to be sought in literature 
has not been reached. 

Questions and Answers. 

/. What is Literature ? 

Literature, in a general sense, includes all compositions 
in writing or print which preserve the results of observa- 
tion, thought or fancy. In its more restricted sense, it 
excludes all technical works, and embraces only such 
subjects as aim to please, and awaken thought, feeling, 
or imagination. 

2. What are the two forms of literature ? 
Poetry and prose. 

J. What is poetry ? 

Poetry comprises whatever embodies the products of 
imagination and fancy, and appeals to these powers in 
others, as well as to the finer emotions and the sense of 
beauty. 



32 SEELBY'S QUESTION BOOK 

^. Name and define the divisions of poetry. Give an ex- 
ample of each. 

(1) An Epic is a narrative or heroic poem, in which 
the deeds of some real or fictitious hero are narrated in 
an elevated style; as, Milton's '*Paradise Lost." 

(2) Dramatic composition (either poetry or prose) is 
written in the form of dialogue. The two divisions of 
the drama are: tragedy, which usually deals with the^ 
trials and sufferings of mankind; and comedy, which ex- 
hibits merely the humors and follies of the race for the 
purpose of exciting laughter; as "Hamlet" (tragedy). 
"Twelfth Night" (comedy). 

(3) Lyric poetry especially expresses the individual 
emotions of the poet, and is suitable for music. It in- 
cludes odes, songs, hymns, ballads and elegies; as, Shel- 
ley's "Skylark," Tennyson's "In Memoriam." 

(4) Pastoral poetry is descriptive of rural life; as, 
Whittier's "Snow Bound." 

(5) A Narrative poem is a story in verse; as, Scott's 
"Lady of the Lake." 

(6) Didactic poetry is instructive in its character; as, 
Bryant's "Thanatopsis." 

5, Define prose. 

Prose is the ordinary language used in speaking or 
writing. Coleridge defines poetry and prose thus; 
Prose — words in their best order ; poetry — the best words 
in the best order. 

6. Define and illustrate the divisions of prose. 

(1) History is a recital of the important events of the 
past, so arranged as to show the connection of causes 
and effects, and to give an analysis of motive and action; 
as, Macaulay's "History of England." 

(2) Biography is an account of the life of an indi- 
vidual; as, Boswell's "Life of Johnson." 



LITERATURE 33 

(3) Fiction is a prose work of the imagination in nar- 
rative form : Dickens, Scott and Thackeray wrote the 
best works of fiction. 

(4) Philosophical works are those which seek to estab- 
lish a truth. They include scientific, theological, and 
metaphysical writings; as, Mill's "Principles of Political 
Economy." 

(5) An Essay is a brief and informal expression of an 
author's own feelings or opinions on a subject; as, Car- 
lyle's "Essay on Burns." 

y. Give a brief account of the early inhabitants of 
England. 

The most ancient inhabitants of the British Isles were 
the Celts, who belonged to the Aryan race. In the first 
century of the Christian era, the central and southern 
part of England became a Roman province. When 
the Roman soldiers were withdrawn, about the middle 
of the fifth century, the unconquered tribes of the 
north invaded southern England. The southern 
Britons, unable to resist their warlike kinsmen, called to 
their aid their neighbors across the sea — the Angles, 
Saxons, and Jutes. The northern tribes were driven 
back, but the guests, pleased with the country, decided 
to conquer the southern Britons and settle there. This 
they did and England, although invaded by the Danes 
who sought to conquer the entire land, remained under 
Saxon rule until its conquest by the Normans in 1066. 

8. What effect had these invasions upon the language 
of England ? 

Early England had no national language. After the 
Anglo-Saxon conquest the language assumed a more defi- 
nite form. With the coming of the Normans many 
French and Latin words were introduced. Norman- 
French became the court language, while Anglo-Saxon 



34 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

remained the speech of the common people. Aoout the 
middle of the twelfth century, the two languages began 
to coalesce. This marks the beginning of our modern 
English language. 

p. What is the first known poem of the English language? 
When is it supposed to have been written ? 

"Beowulf" is the earliest epic poem of the Teutonic 
language. It was probably composed by the Saxons who 
lived before the invasion of England. However, the 
only manuscript preserved was written not earlier than 
the tenth century. It was written in Danish, probably 
by a monk, who added some interpolations to the origi- 
nal Pagan story. 

10. Tell something of this story of ' ^Beowulf. " 

The scenes of the story are laid in Denmark and 
Sweden. The hero, Beowulf, goes with a company of 
warriors to rid his friend Hrothgar, King of Denmark, 
of a horrid monster, Grendel. After a long contest 
Beowulf kills the monster, and also pursues and slays 
Grendel's mother, who sought to avenge the death of her 
son. He receives rich gifts from Hrothgar and returns 
to his own country — the land of the East Goths. He 
becomes king of this country and rules it for many years 
but dies from venom received in conflict with a fiery 
dragon which infested his own land, and which he slew. 

11. Who was Ccedmon ? 

Caedmon was the first Anglo-Saxon poet. In the 
seventh century he wrote a "Metrical Paraphrase of the 
Scriptures." 

12. What later English poem deals with the same subject ? 
Have we ajiy reason for supposing this early poem, in- 
fluenced the writer of the seventeenth century ? 

The poem of Caedmon seems in many ways like a skel- 



LITERATURE 



35 



eton of Milton's great epic, "Paradise Lost." The manu- 
script of this early poem was discovered and published in 
1655. Milton's masterpiece was begun three years later. 

/J. What of the writings of Bede and Alfred? 

Bede wrote in Latin a "History of the English Church" 
and a "Life of Casdmon." 

Alfred translated Latin works into English to be used 
especially as text books. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
was begun in his reign, and continued until 1154, the 
end of the Anglo-Saxon period of English Literature. 

i/j.. In what way is the twelfth century noted in Eng- 
lish history and literature ? 

The English nation made many advances in learning 
and national growth. Oxford and Cambridge Universi- 
ties were established and social and domestic refinement 
followed. In this century were discovered, in Brittany, 
the Legends of King Arthur, and the Eddas — the tra- 
ditions of the Gothic race — were collected in Iceland. 
Both of these were valuable literary acquisitions and be- 
came the foundation of many romances and ballads. 

75. Who was the first English scientist ? 

Roger Bacon, the first English scientist, made many 
valuable discoveries, especially in optics. His works 
were written in Latin. 

16. What works of this time mark the progress of the 
language ? 

The "Brut d'Angletree" of Layamon, is a fabulous his- 
tory of England. It is a specimen of almost pure Saxon. 

The "Ormulum" is a poetic version of the Scriptures, 
by Orm. It shows the gradual union of the Saxon and 
Norman-French languages. 

77. Who is called the ^'■Father of English Poetry V^ 
Tell something of his life and times. 



36 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Geoffrey Chaucer, the "Father of English Poetry,* 
lived during the latter part of the fourteenth century 
This was the age of intellectual regeneration throughout 
Europe. Chaucer had visited Italy, had met Petrarch, 
and had read the stories of Boccaccio. His writings 
show the gay, childlike character, of the man and his 
keen appreciation and great love for nature. He was 
the first author to use the "King's English" and 
his success compelled other writers in England to use it 
in preference to the Latin and the French. 

J 8. Give a brief outline of his most famous work. 
His best known work is "Canterbury Tales." 
A company of pilgrims about to make a pilgrimage to 
the tomb of Thomas a'Becket at Canterbury, assemble 
at Tabard Inn. It is proposed that each member of the 
company shall relate two stories going and two coming, 
in order to while away the tedium of the journey. These 
travelers are from all walks of life, and the stories which 
the poet puts into their mouths give an excellent picture 
of the life of his time. 

ig Who were the contemporaries of Chaucer ? 

John Wycliffe, a learned preacher, called the "Morn- 
ing Star of the Reformation," and the author of the first 
English translation of the Bible; William Langland who 
wrote the allegorical poem of "Piers Plowman; John 
Gower, the friend of Chaucer, and the author of "Con- 
fessio Amantis;" Sir John Mandeville, who wrote a book 
of travels. 

20. What four noted historical events followed the time 
of Chaucer f 

(1) The invention of printing, and its introduction 
into England by William Caxton. The first book printed 
in England (1474) was "Game and Play of Chess." 

(2) The discovery of America. 



, LITERATURE 37 

(3) The Wars of the Roses. 

(4) The Protestant Reformation in England under 
Henry VlIL 

21. What kind of poetry belo7igs to this period? 

The stirring English ballads belong to the fifteenth 
century. They recount the deeds of the warriors and 
outlaws, and picture the rude life of the time. The 
"Ancient Ballad of Chevy Chase," "The Battle of Otter- 
bourne," and the various poems on Robin Hood, are 
among the best known examples of ballad poetry. 

22. Who were the authors of this time ? 

John Skelton, the first "Poet Laureate," was a writer 
of satirical poetry. 

Sir Thomas Wyatt, a lyric poet of the time of Henry 

vni. 

Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, who was the first 
writer to use blank verse. 

Sir Thomas More, the most distinguished prose writer 
of his time, and the author of "Utopia." 

Sir Thomas Malory, who collected the legends of King 
Arthur. 

2j. What period is known as the Golden Age of Eng- 
lish L iter at II re'' ? 

The time embraced in the reigns of Elizabeth, James 
I, and Charles I, is known as the Elizabethan, or Golden 
Age of English Literature. 

2/}.. For what two tJmigs is this age noted? 
For the translation of the Bible, and the rise and de- 
velopment of the English drama. 

2^. What translations of the Bible have been made into 
English ? 

In 1380 John Wycliffe translated the New Testament, 
and his followers added the Old Testament. 



38 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Tyndale's New Testament was printed in 1525. 

In 1535 Miles Coverdale translated and published the 
first English version of the whole Bible. 

Matthew's Bible was published in 1537 "by the king's 
license." 

The Great Bible, or Cranmer's, as it was called, be- 
cause Archbishop Cranmer wrote a preface to it, ap- 
peared in 1539. 

The Geneva Bible was published in 1560 by the Eng- 
lish Protestant refugees in Geneva. 

The Bishop's Bible appeared in 1568. 

The Rheims-Douay version was made by the Catholics 
and published in 1582 and 1609. 

King James' Bible, known as the Authorized Version, 
was made in 1611. 

A revised version by English and American scholars 
was completed in 1881. 

26. What was the earliest form of the drama ? 

As early as the eleventh century, representations of 
Bible scenes, known as Miracle Plays, or Mysteries, were 
given. These were employed by the church to instruct 
the ignorant in Bible history and the tenets of the Chris- 
tian religion. 

The Moral Plays, which succeeded the Mysteries, were 
not based upon religious subjects, but were allegorical 
representations of moral qualities. 

Following these came the Interludes. They were in 
the form of dialogue, were short and merry, and were 
generally played in the intervals of some festivity. The 
Interlude was the first step toward the English comedy. 

s 2y. What was the first comedy ? The first drama ? 

The first English comedy, "Ralph Royster Doyster," 
was written by Nicholas Udall, about the time of the 
accession of Queen Elizabeth. *'Gorboduc," the first 



LITERATURE 39 

English tragedy was written by Thomas Sackville and 
acted in 1562 for the entertainment of Queen Elizabeth. 

28. Who was the greatest dramatist ? Tell briefly of 
his work. 

William Shakespeare was the greatest dramatist of 
this and all ages. His first poems were very meritorious 
although not dramatic. But it is upon his wonderful 
dramas that his reputation rests. His plays are based 
upon historical and legendary subjects and upon Italian 
romances and older plays. 

2g. How many plays did Shakespeare write ? Naine 
three tragedies^ three comedies^ and three historical plays. 

Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven dramas. 

"Othello," "Macbeth," and "Hamlet" are tragedies; 
"As You Like It," "Twelfth Night," and "Midsummer 
Night's Dream" are comedies; "Henry VIII," 
"Richard III," and "King John" are historical. 

JO. What writings have had most influence upon the 
permanency of the English language ? 

The common version of the Bible made in 1611, and 
the writings of Shakespeare, have had a powerful and 
lasting influence upon the language. Its form is prac- 
tically the same as it was more than three centuries ago 
and its permanency is due to these two works. 

J/. Who were the other dramatists of the Elizabethan 
Age? 

Christopher Marlowe, the greatest dramatist before 
Shakespeare. John Lyly, the author of "Euphues, " a 
work which greatly affected the language of the time. 
Ben Jonson, second only to Shakespeare, succeeded Daniel 
as poet-laureate. He wrote "Every Man in His Hum- 
or," "The Sad Shepherd," etc. He was the most learned 
dramatist of his age and did much to give the drama its 



40 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

proper direction. Beaumont and Fletcher, Massinger, 
Shirley, the last of the Elizabethan dramatists, and many 
others produced dramas of varying merit during this 
period. 

^2. Who was the greatest of the Elizabethan poets ? 
What was his greatest work ? 

Edmund Spenser (1553-1599) was the second of Eng- 
land's great poets. The "Faerie Queen," his most fa- 
mous poem, was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and typi- 
fied her splendid reign. 

jj. Who were some of the other poets of this time ? 
Daniel, Drayton, Joseph Hall the first English satirist, 
Herrick, Carew, Lovelace and Suckling. 

J/. Who was the first English philosopher ? Name his 
principal works. 

Francis Bacon was the most brilliant scholar of his 
time. His greatest work was the "Novum Organum." 
Others were "The Advancement of Learning," "Es- 
says," and some historical and political writings. 

J5. Mention other prose writers of this age. 

Sir Philip Sidney, whose life has been of more interest 
and benefit to the world than his writings. He wrote 
"Arcadia" and the "Defence of Poesy." 

Sir Walter Raleigh, courtier, soldier, explorer, and 
writer, was the author of a "History of the World," and 
of several poems. 

Roger Ascham, the learned tutor of Elizabeth, wrote 
"Toxophilus" and "The Schoolmaster." 

Richard Hooker, the greatest theologian of his time, 
wrote "Ecclesiastical Polity," a defense of the church of 
England against Puritanism. 

John Knox, the founder of Presbyterianism, was a 
prominent figure at this time. He wrote the "History 
of the Reformation in Scotland." 



LITERATURE 41 

j6. What were the characteristics of the Puritan 
Age? 

This was a time of fierce political and religious con- 
troversy. Few works were produced except such as re- 
flected the character of the age. 

J/. Who was the greatest writer of this time ? 
John Milton (1608-1674). 

J 6*. Into what three periods may his literary life be 
divided? Name some of his best works. 

The first period, previous to 1640, was the time when 
he wrote his early poems, — "11' Penseroso, " " L' Allegro, " 
the "Masque of Comus, " and others. 

The second period of twenty years may be called the 
period of his prose works. During this time he gave to 
his country his time, talents, and eyesight. He wrote 
"Areopagitica or Plea for Unlicensed Printing," the 
"Image Breaker," "Defense of the People of England," 
and many other books and pamphlets bearing upon the 
political and religious controversies of the times. 

After the downfall of the Commonwealth and the res- 
toration of the Stuarts, Milton retired from political life. 
During this, the third period, he wrote his great epic, 
"Paradise Lost." Soon after, "Paradise Regained" was 
written, and in the last years of his life he wrote the 
sacred drama of "Samson Aofonistes." 

jg. Who were tJie prose writers of this time ? 

Jeremy Taylor the great Cavalier theologian, who 
wrote the "Rule and Exercise of Holy Living and 
Dying." 

The three distinguished Non-conformist divines — ■ 
Richard Baxter, the author of "The- Saints' Everlasting 
Rest;" John Bunyan, who wrote "Pilgrim's Progress;" 



42 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

and George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends. 

Izaak Walton, whose chief work is the "Complete 
Angler." 

^o. Who are called the four great 7nasters of English 
foetry ? 

Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton. 

/J.I. What was the character of the Age of the Restora- 
tion ? 

Corruption and vice reigned in court, literature was 
debased, the drama was corrupt, and the authors catered 
to the false tastes and low ideals of the ruling classes. 

/J.2. Who was the leading writer of this ti^nef What 
did he write? 

John Dryden, who founded, in England, the artificial 
or critical school of writing, was the leading author of 
the Restoration period. He wrote poems, essays, and 
dramas. His best drama is the ''Indian Emperor.** 
^'Alexander's Feast," "The Hind and Panther," and 
"Absalom and Achitophel" are his best known poems. 

^j. What two men wrote diaries that picture the times 
vf Charles II? 
John Evelyn and Samuel Pepys. 

/J.4.. Who wrote ^^Hudibras ?'' What was its character ? 

"Hudibras" was a satire upon the Puritans, and was 
written by Samuel Butler. 

^5. What eminent divine denounced the corruption of 
the dramas of Drydeji^ Wycherly and Congreve ? 

Jeremy Collier openly attacked the corruption of the 
stage. In his "Short View of the Profaneness and Im- 
morality of the English Stage," he strongly denounced 
these authors. 

4.6. Who were the scientists of this time ? 



LITERATURE 43 

Robert Boyle, who' gained for himself a high reputa- 
tion in experimental philosophy. Sir Isaac Newton, the 
greatest scientist of the age, and the author of "Princi- 
pia. " John Locke, who by his "Essay on Human Under- 
standing" first popularized the study of mental science. 
Locke was also one of the greatest English philosophers. 

^7. Give dates of the A ugustan Age ? 

The Augustan Age of English Literature includes the 
reigns of Queen Anne and George L (1700-1727). 

4.8. What characterized the writings of the time ? 

It was an age of superficial refinement, not in morals 
and character, but in manners and language. Poetry 
did not thrive because the age was too keen and critical, 
but the prose writings possessed a marked degree of ex- 
cellence. 

4.g. Who were the chief authors of this period? 

Alexander Pope, the professed follower of Dryden, was 
the chief of the Artificial Poets. His best known works 
are the "Essay on Criticism," "Essay on Man," "Rape 
of the Lock," and a "Translation of Homer." 

Joseph Addison was a genial, polished writer of refined 
tastes and instincts. He was the originator of the 
periodical essay. In conjunction with Steele he pub- 
lished the "Spectator," a magazine devoted to literary 
discussions, and thoughts on morals and manners. 

Richard Steele was Addison's life-long friend and his 
associate in literary work. - His principal writings were 
the essays published in the "Tatler, " "Spectator," 
and "Guardian." 

Jonathan Swift was noted for his satire. His chief 
works are, "The Tale of the Tub," and "Gulliver's 
Travels." 

Daniel DeFoe the most independent writer of his time, 
is best known as the author of "Robinson Crusoe." 



44 SEELE Y'S Q UES TION BOOK 

50. Tell something of the Age of Dr. Johnson ? 

This is one of the most interesting periods in literature 
and history. It was the time of Burke and Pitt. It 
saw the establishment of the British empire in India, and 
the independence of the American colonies. It was an 
age when patronage had ceased and public taste had not 
begun to demand literature. Hence the writers of the 
time had to struggle with poverty and adversity. The 
writings of the day still bore Pope's artificial stamp, but 
were characterized by greater sincerity and merit. 

5/. Who was the cefiter of the Londojt literary world of 
the Eighteenth Century ? 

Dr. Samuel Johnson was the most unique character of 
his time. He was conservative, narrow and prejudiced, 
yet honest, earnest, and grand in his way. His princi- 
pal works were the "Dictionary of the English Lan- 
guage," "Rasselas," and the "Lives of the Poets." He 
is best remembered for his conversations. 

^2. Who were the poets of this period? 

Thomas Gray, whose fam<e rests upon his poem, 
"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard." 

William Collins, who like Gray, was a purely lyrical 
poet. His best known poem is his "Ode to the Passions, " 

James Thomson, the author of "The Seasons," was 
preeminently a poet of nature. 

Edward Young, known mainly as the author of 
"Night Thoughts." 

53*. What author of this period was poet^ novelist, 
dramatist and Jiistorian ? Name some of his works. 

Oliver Goldsmith was the most versatile writer of his 
day, and his compositions are among the most elegant 
and delightful in the language. "The Deserted Vil- 
lage," "Vicar of Wakefield," "She Stoops to Conquer," 
and histories of England, Greece, and Rome, are some 
of his many Vv^ritings. 



LITER A rURE 45 

5^. What was peciiliar about the writtjtgs of James 
MacpJie7'soii and Thomas Chatterton ? 

Both were perpetrators of literary forgeries. The 
former claimed to have discovered the works of the Celtic 
poet Ossian, but investigation proved the writings to be 
largely his own. Chatterton wrote in an antiquated 
style, pretending that his verses had been written cen- 
turies before, but those who were versed in the old lan- 
guage easily recognized them as forgeries. 

55. What was the literary work of Thomas Percy ? Of 
Edmund Burke ? Of Sir Philip Francis ? 

Dr. Thomas Percy collected and published the old 
ballads of England and Scotland. This book, known as 
"Percy's Reliques," had a marked influence upon the 
poetry of succeeding ages. 

Edmund Burke, while a noted political leader, was 
also famous for his literary attainments. His essay on 
"The Sublime and Beautiful" gave him first rank as a 
writer of criticisms. 

Sir Philip Francis is supposed to be the author of the 
"Junius Letters." These were a series of brilliant po- 
litical letters which appeared in the London journals. 

^6. Who were Adam Smith and William Blackstone? 

Adam Smith was the founder, in England, of the sci- 
ence of political economy. The "Wealth of Nations" is 
his great work. 

William Blackstone, in his "Commentaries on the Laws 
of England," furnishes the best law treatise extant. 

57. Who were the historians of the Eighteenth Century ? 

David Hume, who wrote "A History of England from 
the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688." 

Edward Gibbon, whose great work is "The Decline 
and Fall of the Roman Empire." 



46 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

William Robertson, the author of "A History of Scot- 
land," and "A History of America." 

58. What was the character of the drama at this time ? 

The drama, and the histrionic art as well, reached a 
high degree of excellence at this time. 

Goldsmith's "She Stoops to Conquer," and Sheridan's 
"Rivals" and "School for Scandal" have become classics. 
Other dramatists were Garrick, Foote and Gibber. 

5p. What new style of literature appeared in this 
period ? Who were some of its representatives? 

During this period, the first English novels were writ- 
ten. Defoe, with his "Robinson Crusoe" and "Memoirs 
of a Cavalier," had been the pioneer in English fiction. 

Richardson's "Pamela" was the first novel based upon 
the incidents of common life. These men, together with 
Henry Fielding, the author of "Joseph Andrews," Lau- 
rence Sterne, who wrote "Tristram Shandy," and Tobias 
Smollett, the author of "Humphrey Clinker," should be 
considered the founders of this new feature in literature. 

60. Who were the noted theologians of this time ? 
Bishop Butler, whose principal work is the "Analogy 

of Religion." 

William Paley, who wrote "Elements of Moral and 
Political Philosophy." 

The Wesleys and George Whitefield, the founders of 
Methodism, each of whom wrote many sermons and 
hymns. 

61. What was the character of the Age of Burns ? 

This period marks the downfall o£ the artificial poets 
and the rise of the natural school. 

62. Who were the leading poets of this age ? 

Robert Burns, the Scotch poet, whose beautiful poems 
of nature appeal to all. His best known productions are 



LITERATURE 47 

^'Cotter's Saturday Night," "Tarn O'Shanter," "A 
Man's a Man," "Highland Mary," and many others. 

William Cowper, an Englishman of refined and tender 
sensibilities, found his inspiration, like Burns, in nature 
and the incidents of everyday life. "Lines on My 
Mother's Picture," "The Task," "John Gilpin," and 
others of his poems are well known. 

6 J Give a brief account of the writings of Sir Walter 
Scott. 

The most versatile and vigorous writer of the early 
part of the Nineteenth Century was Sir Walter Scott. 
His first inspiration for literary work came from the 
reading of "Percy's Reliques. " His poems were, 
"The Lay of the Last Minstrel," "Marmion," "Lady of 
the Lake," and others. Shortly after their publication, 
Byron begail to be famous, and Scott believing him to 
be his superior as a poet, turned his mind into another 
channel, and produced his wonderful novels. Of these 
novels, twenty-nine in number, seven are based upon 
Scotch history, seven upon English, and three upon Con- 
tinental history, while twelve are of a personal character. 
The best known of his stories are "Waverly" (from 
which the series took its name), "Ivanhoe," "Kenil- 
worth," "Quentin Durward," and "Guy Mannering." 

6^. What poets were prominent at this time ? 

George Gordon Byron, whose poems are of a grand, 
impetuous character. Chief among them are "Childe 
Harold," "The Prisoner of Chillon," "The Corsair" and 
"Don Juan." 

Percy Bysshe Shelley's poetry dealt with ideals. His 
chief works are "Queen Mab," "The Revolt of Islam," 
etc. His shorter poems, "The Skylark," "The Cloud," 
and "The Sensitive Plant," are well known. 

The poetry of John Keats deals with the refined enjoy- 



48 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

ment of the senses. "Endymion, " "The Eve of St. 
Agnes," and *' Hyperion" are some of his best poems. 

Thomas Moore was an Irish song-writer and lyric poet. 
His principal long poem is "Lalla Rookh." 

6s. Who were the "-Lake Poets f Why so called? 
What was their style ? 

William Wordsworth, Samuel Coleridge and Robert 
Southey are called the "Lake Poets/' Like Burns and 
Cowper, they were lovers of humanity and believers in 
the natural school of poetry. They held that the ordi- 
nary events of daily life were fit subjects for poetry and 
contended that the language employed should be such 
as was "really used by men." They lived among the 
lakes of northwestern England, hence they have been 
called the "Lake Poets." 

66. Tell something of the writings of each of these poets 

Wordsworth's poems show his great love for nature, 
"The Excursion" is his longest poem. "We Are Seven" 
is the best known. 

The life and writings of Samuel Coleridge are marked 
by incompleteness. He possessed great genius but 
lacked in self-control. "The Ancient Mariner" is his 
most famous poem. 

Robert Southey was noted not only for his literary 
ability but for his untiring industry. 'Joan of Arc/' 
"Madoc," and "Curse of Kehama" are his longer poems. 
The "Battle of Blenheim," "Cataract of Lodore. and 
"March to Moscow" are familiar to all. His prose 
works, especially his biographies, are highly valued. 

6^. Name some of the poems of Thomas Hood and 
Thomas Campbell. 

Thomas Hood's best known poems are "The Bridge of 
Sighs," "Eugene Aram," and "The Song of the bhirc. 

Thomas Campbell's longer poems are "Pleasarc^s ot 



LITERATURE 49 

Hope" and '* Gertrude of Wyoming." Of his shorter 
poems "Lochiel's Warning," ''Hohenlinden," "Battle of 
the Baltic," "Lord Ullin's Daughter" and the "Soldier's 
Dream" are well known. 

68. Give a brief account of the writings of Thomas 
Carlyle. 

Thomas Carlyle was influenced in all his writings by 
the literature of Germany. It added intensity and vigor 
to his naturally fearless and independent mind. He is 
known in literature as an essayist, historian, translator, 
biographer, and satirist. His "Essay on Burns," "Sartor 
Resartus, " translation of Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister," 
"French Revolution," "Hero and Hero Worship," and 
"Life of Frederick the Great," are all examples of his 
great ability as an author. 

6g. What other great prose writers lived at the time of 
Carlyle ? 

Thomas Babington Macaulay, who wrote essays, his- 
tory and poetry. His "Lays of Ancient Rome" rank 
high as lyric poetry. His "History of England" is un- 
rivaled in its strength of conception and clearness of 
expression, although, because of the strong likes and dis- 
likes of the author, it is not always reliable. Of his essays, 
the one on Milton was the first to attract public attention. 

Henry Hallam, one of the greatest historical writers 
of the period, wrote, "A View of Europe in the Middle 
Ages," and "The Constitutional History of England." 

Charles Lamb is best known as the author of the 
"Essays of Elia." 

70. What 'tnay be said of the literature of the Victorian 
Age?^ 

This period has been marked by a steady intellectual 
growth. Discoveries in science and the new light in 
which history is viewed, has given to scientific and his- 



50 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

torical works a new interest and a higher place in 
literature. It has been an age of prose literature, and 
has produced more fiction than any other era in the 
world's history. 

/J I. Who were the greatest poets of this age? Tell 
something of each. 

Alfred Tennyson, Robert Browning, and Elizabeth 
Barrett Browning. 

Alfred Tennyson was a close observer of nature, and 
a man of refined artistic sense. He was a poet of senti- 
ment rather than of the ideal. His highest poetic art is 
expressed in his short lyrics. His finest poems are: 
"The May Queen," "Locksley Hall," "In Memoriam," 
"The Princess," "Enoch Arden," "Idylls of the King," 
and "Maud." 

Robert Browning is preeminently a dramatist. He is 
seldom melodious and often difficult to understand, yet 
he is a great poet — great in originality of conception, in 
strength of intellect, in depth of passion and in potency 
of moral sentiment. His finest poems are: "Pippa Pas- 
ses," "Blot on the 'Scutcheon," "The Ring and the 
Book," "Paracelsus," and "How They Brought the 
Good News from Ghent to Aix. " 

Elizabeth Barrett Browning's poetry is not of a popular 
order. It best fits extremes of feeling. She wrote to 
purify, refine, and elevate. "Lady Geraldine's Court- 
ship," "Casa Guidi Windows," "Aurora Leigh," "The 
Cry of the Children," and the "Sonnets from the Portu- 
guese" are among her best poems. 

J2. Najne some other Victorian poets and mention a 
poem of each. 

Dante Gabriel Rossetti, "The House of Life. " Wil- 
liam Morris, "The Earthly Paradise." Algernon 
Charles Swinburne, "Atlanta in Calydon." Alfred 



LITERATURE 51 

Austin, the present poet-laureate, 'English Lyrics." 
Rudyard Kipling, "Barrack Room Ballads." 

7J. For what have the Arnolds been noted? 

Thomas Arnold was the celebrated head-master at 
Rugby. His writings consisted of historical lectures, 
essays, and sermons. 

Matthew Arnold was one of the best English critics, as 
well as a poet of merit. "A Summer Night" is one of his 
best poetical efforts. "Essays in Criticism" is one of his 
many prose writings. 

Sir Edwin Arnold, traveler and journalist, has secured 
a large share of attention from the literary world by his 
poems, "The Light of Asia," and "The Light of the 
World." 

7^. Who were the greatest novelists of the Nineteenth 
Century ? 

Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, Char- 
lotte Bronte and George Eliot. 

75. What was the character of writings of Dickens ? 
Name some of his best novels. 

Charles Dickens was a reporter for a London news- 
paper. This work gave him an opportunity to observe 
the habits and characters of the poorer classes. He was 
quick to note the eccentricities of human nature and 
equally facile in delineating what he saw. Most of his 
stories were written to expose the suffering and hard- 
ships of the poor and with the idea of the amelioration 
of their lot. His characters are taken from life and are 
most realistic. "Pickwick Papers, " "Nicholas Nickle- 
by," "David Copperfield," "Dombey and Son," "Our 
Mutual Friend," and "Old Curiosity Shop" are among 
his best novels. 

j6. How did Thackeray's stories differ fro^n those of 
Dickens ? Name the best ones. 



52 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Some one has said, "In Thackeray's characters we see 
our own faults reflected; in Dickens', we see our 
neighbors'." 

Thackeray was a keen satirist, and delighted especially 
in ridiculing the foibles and weaknesses of fashionable 
society. As a delineator of character he is as great as 
Dickens, though perhaps less genial. ''Vanity Fair,'* 
"Pcndennis," "The Newcomes," "Henry Esmond" and 
"The Virginians" are his best works. 

77. Tell briefly of the writings of Charlotte Bronte and 
George Eliot. 

Charlotte Bronte was the daughter of a poor clergy- 
man. She and her two sisters wrote stories from child- 
hood and dreamed of literary fame. Her first story, 
"The Professor," was rejected by various publishers, but 
finally one asked for a longer story, and "Jane Eyre'*' 
was the result. It became one of the most successful 
novels of the day. 

Eight novels,— "Scenes from Clerical Life," "Adam 
Bede," "Romola," "Silas Marner," "Daniel Deronda," 
"Mill on the Floss," "Middlemarch," and "Felix Holt" 
— two volumes of poems, and two of essays, make up the 
collected works of George Eliot. It is by her novels that 
she must be judged. These show an insight into char- 
acter, an analysis of motives, a sympathy with the 
intellectual and moral struggles of life, that give them a 
literary niche of their own. 

y8. Name other novelists of this age and a work of each. 

Charles Kingsley, whose best stories are "Hypatia" 
and "Westward Ho!" 

Bulwer Lytton, whose "Last Days of Pompeii" and 
"The Caxtons," are best known, 

Charles Reade was one of the most successful of the 
greater novelists of his time. "The Cloister and the 
Hearth" is his best novel. 



LITERATURE 53 

Anthony Trollope pictured the provincial life of early- 
Victorian times. "Dr. Thorne" is the most popular of 
his tales. 

Robert Louis Stevensoii is one of the most picturesque 
figures in literature. Children love his "Child's Garden 
of Verses;" men and boys alike are absorbed in "Treasure 
Island," while we ponder over "St. Ives," and all are 
thrilled by "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde." 

His concentrated thought and vivid passion have gained 
for George Meredith the title of the "Browning of Novel- 
ists." "Richard Feverel," "The Egoist," and "Diana 
of the Crossways" are three of his best known novels. 

Of the many later novelists George Macdonald, Conan 
Doyle, J. M. Barrie, Walter Besant, Thomas Hardy, John 
Watson (Ian Maclaren), William Black, R. D. Blackmore, 
Wilkie Collins, Mrs. Henry Wood, Mrs. Gaskell, Dinah 
Mulock, Mrs. Oliphant, Rudyard Kipling, Hall Caine, 
Du Maurier, can only be mentioned. 

'jg. Who were the scientific writers of this age ? 

John Stuart Mill, the author of "Principles of Political 
Economy." 

Herbert Spencer, who is known by his ' ' Essays, " " Prin- 
ciples of Psychology," etc. 

John Tyndall, who did much to popularize scientific 
literature. "Heat Considered as a Mode of Motion" is 
one of his many scientific works. 

Hugh Miller, whose "Old Red Sandstone," "Footprints 
of the Creator," and "The Testimony of the Rocks," 
were effective in kindling a taste for natural science. 

Charles Darwin, the great evolutionist and naturalist, 
by the publication of his "Origin of the Species" and the 
"Descent of Man," created a new era in the history of 
science. 

Thomas Huxley was a naturalist and metaphysician. 
"Man's Place in Nature" is one of his principal v/orks. 



54 SEBLEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

80. Who was the most prominent ^miscellaneous writer 
of the Victorian Age ? What of his influence upon his 
times ? 

John Ruskin was an art critic, lecturer, Oxford pro- 
fessor, and miscellaneous writer. His best known works 
is "Modern Painters,'* "Seven Lamps of Architecture," 
"Stones of Venice," "Sesame and Lilies." His invigor- 
ating influence upon the life and thought of his time is 
marked. He not only taught contentment with environ- 
ments but gave an impulse toward beautifying that en- 
vironment. The more refined taste in dress, furniture, 
and architecture, as well as the greater simplicity of life, 
is in a great degree due to the influence of Ruskin. 

"What is chiefly needed in England at the present 
day," he says, "is to show the quantity of pleasure that 
may be obtained by consistent, well-administered com- 
petence, modest, confessed, and laborious. We need 
examples of people who, leaving Heaven to decide 
whether they are to rise in the world, decide for them- 
selves that they will be happy in it, and have resolved to 
seek — not greater wealth, but simpler pleasures; not 
higher fortune, but deeper felicity.; making the first of 
possessions, self-possession; and honoring themselves in 
the harmless pride and calm pursuits of peace." 

81. What change occurred during this period , in the 
iharacter of historical writings ? 

The historians of the nineteenth century no longer 
/ooked upon history as a mere record of facts and dates, 
but saw it rather as a chain of causes and effects closely 
linked together. 

82. Name some of these historical works. 

Froude's "History of England," Macaulay's "History 
of England," Buckle's "History of Civilization," 
Grote's "History of Greece," Freeman's "Norman 



LITERATURE 55 

Conquest," McCarthy's "History of the Four Georges," 
Lecky's "History of the Eighteenth Century," Green's 
"Short History of the English People." 

8j. What churchmen and statesmen have been promi- 
nent in the field of literature during this age ? 

Cardinal Newman, whose influence upon Victorian 
literature was very marked. 

Canon Farrar, best known from his "Life of Christ." 

Charles Spurgeon, the most distinguished non-conform- 
ist minister of the period. 

Dean Stanley, who was beloved by both sovereign and 
people. 

Lord Beaconsfield, whose fame as a novelist is only 
eclipsed by his career as a statesman. 

William Ewart Gladstone's chief literary work was his 
"Studies in Homer." 

8^. What was the character of the books of our early 
American Literature? 

The first books written in America were in prose and 
were of a religious character. 

8^. Who were the writers of coloftial times ? 

Richard, Increase and Cotton Mather, were prominent 
in the literature as well as in the history of colonial days. 
Cotton Mather's name is associated with the persecu- 
tion of the witches at Salem, but he is also known as the 
author of several religious works. The "Magnalia 
Christi Americana," an ecclesiastical history of New 
England, is his most valued work. 

Jonathan Edwards, the most prominent writer of this 
period, had a world-wide reputation as a metaphysician. 
His great work is "On the Freedom of the Will." 

Anne Bradstreet is regarded as the first American 
writer of poetry. 



56 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The first book printed in America was the "Bay Psahn 
Book," published in 1640. 

86. What was the style of the literature of Revolu- 
tionary times ? 

The literature of Revolutionary times was distinctly 
political. It was the literature of oratory, and was 
represented by such men as Patrick Henry, James Otis, 
Fisher Ames, and others. 

<?/. Who was the most promi?ie7tt literary character of 
the period? 

Benjamin Franklin was famous alike in science, poli- 
tics, and literature. 

The writings of Franklin were numerous. They con- 
sist of papers on "Electricity and other Scientific and 
Philosophical Subjects," "Moral and Religious Essays," 
and "Essays on Politics, Commerce, and Political 
Economy." "Poor Richard's Almanac" was famous for 
its collection of wise maxims. 

88. What was the Federalist ? Why published? 

The Federalist was a series of papers written by Ham- 
ilton, Madison, and Jay. Its object was to show the 
American people the advantages of the Constitution, 
and to instruct them in the elementary principles of self- 
government. 

8g. What other men of this period made important con- 
tributions to the literature of their time? 

George Washington, whose "Letters and Official Docu- 
ments" are worthy of a place in American literature. 

John Adams, the author of many political pamphlets 
and famous letters. 

Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, and who was the author of many important 
political papers. 



LITERATURE 57 

go. What American poets ivere contemporary zvith Scott 
and Byron ? What did each ivrite ? 

Joseph Rodman Drake, the author of "The Culprit 
Fay" and "The American Flag." 

Fitz-Greene Halleck, the intimate friend of Drake, is 
best known from his shorter poems. His immortal lyric, 
"Marco Bozzaris," his "Lines on Burns" and his tribute 
to his friend Drake, are poems of a high order. 

Edgar Allan Poe was a man of rare genius, but 
passionate and of dissipated habits. His poems are 
melodious, but weird and unnatural. "The Raven," 
"Annabel Lee," and "The Bells" are the best known of 
his poems. 

gi. What other poets of this time became famoiis from 
07ie or two single poems ? 

Joseph Hopkinson, the author of "Hail Columbia." 

Francis Scott Key, who wrote "The Star-Spangled 
Banner." 

Robert Treat Paine, the author of "Adams and 
Liberty." 

Samuel Woodworth, the writer of "The Old Oaken 
Bucket." 

John Howard Payne, whose "Home, Sweet Home" is 
treasured in all lands." 

George P. Morris, best known by his "My Mother's 
Bible," and "Woodman, Spare that Tree." 

Samuel F. Smith, the author of "America." 

g2. Who was the first American novelist of note? 

Charles Brockden Brown of Philadelphia was the first 
American novelist of note and also the first writer who 
followed literature as a profession. "Arthur Mervyn," 
his best book, gives a realistic description of the yellow 
fever plague in Philadelphia in 1793. 



58 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

gj. What writer made the novel a distinct feature in 
American literature ? Na^ne his best works. 

James Fenimore Cooper gave the novel a distinct 
place in American literature. Not only did he win fame 
at home by his matchless stories of forest, sea, stream, 
and Indian, but he became famous abroad and so popular 
were his novels that they were translated into many of 
the European languages. "The Spy," "The Pioneers,*' 
"The Last of the Mohicans," "The Pathfinder," and 
"The Prairie" are some of his best stories. 

p^. To what class of writers does Channing belong? 

William Ellery Channing, although a prominent theo- 
logian, is better known as a writer of ethical essays. 
He was a strong opponent of slavery and an ardent ad- 
vocate of civil, intellectual, and religious freedom. His 
essay on "Self-Culture" has been an inspiration to many. 

P5. Give a brief sketch of the writings of Washington 
Irving. 

The works of Washington Irving belong to both his- 
tory and fiction, still the latter can not be classed as 
novels. He is noted for his clearness and grace of style 
and his genial humor. "The Sketch Book," "Alham- 
bra," "Knickerbocker's History of New York," "Life of 
Columbus," and "Life of Washington" are some of his 
best works. 

^6. Who is the best known American poet? What is 
the character of his poetry ? Name some of his poems. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow is the best known and 
best beloved of American poets. His writings tell in a 
simple, direct manner, the story of the everyday exper- 
iences of life. "Evangeline," "The Courtship of Miles 
Standish," "Hiawatha," "Hyperion," "The Voices of 
the Night," — all are expressed in language and thought 
intelligible alike to youth and manhood, to learned and 
unlearned. 



LITERATURE 59 

gy. Who was the Quaker poet ? 

John Greenleaf Whittier, the Quaker poet, is a typical 
product of New England influences. He gained his 
inspiration from her scenery, the sober charm of her rural 
life, and her history and legends. "Snow Bound," 
"Mogg Megone," "The Tent on the Beach," "Songs of 
Labor," "The Barefoot Boy," and "Voices of Free- 
dom," all show his love of humanity, his minute obser- 
vation of nature and his earnest conviction against all 
forms of oppression. 

g8. What poet is called the A7nerican Wordsworth? 
Why? 

William Cullen Bryant is often called the American 
Wordsworth, because like the English poet, he found in 
nature the chief source of his inspiration and the themes 
for his poems. 

As a poet Mr. Bryant is noted for his finish and repose, 
although his poetry lacks warmth. He is also appre- 
ciated for his pure, clear, exact English. "Thana- 
topsis," written when he was eighteen, "The Forest 
Hymn," "The Death of the Flowers," are some of his 
best poems. In his old age he translated the "Iliad" 
and the "Odyssey." 

pp. In what fields of literature were James Russell 
Lowell and Oliver Wendell Holmes engaged ? 

James Russell Lowell, in his "Fable for Critics" and 
"Biglow Papers," showed his ability in characterization, 
and as a keen satirist. "The Vision of Sir Launfal," 
"Columbus," and "Under the Willows" are poems of 
great beauty and merit, while "Among My Books" 
and "My Study Window" show the author to have been 
not only a master of brilliant humor, and a writer of 
poetic gems, but also an essayist who was capable of pro- 
ducing the finest prose. 



6o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Oliver Wendell Holmes is noted for his rare ability in 
combining humor and pathos. Of his poems, "The One- 
Hoss Shay," "Old Ironsides," "Union and Liberty" 
and "The Boys," are well known. "The Autocrat at 
the Breakfast Table," the "Professor at the Breakfast 
Table," and the "Poet at the Breakfast Table," are a 
combination of essay and story. "Elsie Venner" and the 
"Guardian Angel" are novels in which the professional 
thought of their author finds expression. 

100. What American writer was poet., traveler^ and 
novelist ? Name some of his zvorks. 

Bayard Taylor, although noted as a writer of travels 
and as a novelist, belongs especially to the realm of 
poetry. "Ximena," "Poems and Ballads," and many 
other collections of his poems have been published. 
"Views Afoot" and "A Journey to Central Africa" are 
examples of the graphic accounts of his travels. 
"Hannah Thurston," a novel, and "Prince Deukalion," 
a drama, further evince the versatility of this author's 
talents. 

1 01. Name some other A merican poets. 

John G. Saxe, author of "The Proud Mrs. MacBride." 

Thomas Buchanan Read, who wrote ' ' Sheridan's Ride, ' ' 
"Drifting," and the "Wagoner of the Alleghenies. " 

Alice and Phoebe Gary, known from their individual 
poems of "One Sweetly Solemn Thought," "Pictures of 
Memory," etc. 

Thomas Bailey Aldrich, the author of "Babie Bell," 
"The Face against the Pane," and the "Story of a Bad 
Boy." 

Edmund Clarence Stedman, whose best known poem is 
"John Brown of Ossawatomie." 

Josiah G. Holland known from his poem-stories, "Bitter 
Sweet" and "Kathrina," and his prose works, "Gold 
Foil," "Nicholas Minturn," etc. 



LITERATURE 6i 

Francis Bret Harte, whose dialect poems, *'The Heath- 
en Chinee" and "In the Tunnel," are as Avell known 
as his other poems or his prose works, "The Luck of 
Roaring Camp," "The Idyl of Red Gulch," etc. 

"Joaquin" Miller, known from his "Songs of the Sier- 
ras," "Rain on the Roof," etc. 

Eugene Field wrote poems of child life in an inimitable 
style. "Little Boy Blue," "The Fire Hang Bird's 
Nest," "Seein' Things," and "Jest 'fore Christmas," 
are all excellent pictures of child thought and action. 

James Whitcomb Riley's dialect poems have won him 
fame and recognition everywhere. "An Old Sweetheart 
of Mine," "The Old Swimmin' Hole," and many of his 
other poems have become household favorites. 

Paul Laurence Dunbar, the J|fero poet, has sung the 
songs of his race in its melodious dialect in such a way 
as to win praise and honor. "Candle Lightin' Time," 
"When Malindy Sings," are among the many poems 
found in "Lyrics of Love and Laughter," "Lyrics of a 
Lowly Life," and "Poems of Cabin and Field." 

102. What department of literature is most distinctively 
American ? Who are its best representatives ? 

The department of humor belongs distinctively to 
American literature. In this department are found 
dialect poems and sketches, bad spelling, burlesque lec- 
tures, and that combination of literature and art (?) the 
cartoon. Charles Brown (Artemus Ward), David Locke 
(Petroleum V. Nasby), B. P. Shillaber (Mrs. Parting- 
ton), Edgar Wilson Nye (Bill Nye), Henry W. Shaw 
(Josh Billings), Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain), 
George Ade, F. P. Dunne, (Mr. Dooley), Thomas Nast, 
the prince of cartoonists, are a few representatives of 
this class of literature. 

loj. Who is the acknowledged head of American 
novelists ? 



62 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Nathaniel Hawthorne is acknowledged to be the head 
of American novelists. He is noted for his analytical 
insight and his command of all that is quaint, delicate, 
and suggestive, in the English language. His writings 
are largely psychological narratives which hinge upon 
the action of conscience. "The Scarlet Letter," 
"Marble Faun," "House of Seven Gables" are his chief 
novels. His short stories and sketches were published 
under the title of "Twice-Told Tales" and "Mosses 
from an Old Manse." 

lO/j.. Who are some of the other writers of American 
fiction ? 

Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose greatest book is "Uncle 
Tom's Cabin." \|| 

Edward Eggleston, wm) wrote "The Hoosier School- 
master. ' ' 

Edward Everett Hale, the author of "A Man Without 
a Country." 

William Dean Howells, the leader of the realistic school 
of fiction in America, and the foremost living American 
novelist. Some of his works are, "The Rise of Silas Lap- 
ham," "A Foregone Conclusion," "Criticism and Fic- 
tion," "The Quality of Mercy," "A Boy's Town," etc. 

Henry James, also a realist, has written "Daisy 
Miller," "The Portrait of a Lady," "The Bostonians," 
and several other novels, besides two charming volumes 
of critical essays. 

F. Marion Crawford's works are mostly stories of foreign 
life. "Dr. Claudius," "Saracinesca," "Sanf Ilario" 
are a few of the many novels of this author. 

Frank Stockton wrote many stories which abound in 
humor. "Rudder Grange," "and The Late Mrs. Null" 
are examples in point. 

George W. Cable pictures the Sunny South and the 
Creoles in his "Grandissimes" and "Dr. Sevier." 



LITERATURE 63 

Mrs. Burnett is known as the author of "Little Lord 
Fauntleroy," "That Lass o' Lowrie's," etc. 

Julian Hawthorne's "Archibald Malmaison," and 
"Dust" show that this novelist has much in common 
with his father. 

Constance Fenimore Woolson, Mary Murfree, Mary 
Wilkins Freeman, Sara Orne Jewett, James Lane Allen, 
Louisa May Alcott, Mary Hallock Foote, Winston 
Churchill, Mary Johnston, are but a few of the many 
novelists of more recent times. These writers have pro- 
duced works of different types and varying merit. 

705. Who are the most eininent American historians? 

What are the works of each ? 

I 
William Hickling Prescott wrote the "History of Fer- 
dinand and Isabella," "The Conquest of Mexico," and 
the "History of Philip II." 

George Bancroft, whose great work is a "History of 
the United States." 

John Lothrop Motley is known as the author of "Rise 
of the Dutch Republic," "The History of the United 
Netherlands," and the "Life of John of Barneveld. " 

Francis Parkman wrote of the struggles in the New 
World between the English and French. 

106. Give a brief sketch of the writings of Ralph 
Waldo Emerson. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson does not belong to any one 
department of literature but stands in a realm of his own 
creation. In his poetry and in his prose essays, his 
remarkable genius and matchless ability are displayed. 
"Representative Men," "Society and Solitude," and 
several volumes of essays, lectures, and poems form part 
of his published works. 



64 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

loy. Make a brief statement concerning each of the fol- 
lowing : Agassiz^ Margaret Fuller^ Alcott, Thoreau, 
Whitman, Burroughs. 

Louis Agassiz was the most eminent naturalist of 
modern times. 

Margaret Fuller and A. Bronson Alcott were both 
members of the so-called transcendental school. Alcott 
was the typical philosopher of this schpol, and Margaret 
Fuller its finest feminine type. 

Henry David Thoreau was a man of peculiar habits of 
thought and life. In his book, "Walden," he sets forth 
his theory of labor and leisure. 

Walt Whitman is also a writer of peculiar interest. 
Although his writings often seem crude and even coarse, 
yet he deserves recognition as a poet and thinker. 

John Burroughs, as a naturalist, holds a clear mirror 
up to nature and interprets her life and thought with 
rare truthfulness. 

io8. What 7nay be said of the periodical literature of 
the past century ? 

In both England and America, the past century and 
the present age are remarkable for the production of ex- 
cellent short stories, essays, sketches, and children's litera- 
ture. These productions have been published mostly in 
the many excellent magazines and periodicals. Many of 
these publications are of a high literary rank, and with 
their exquisite illustrations, and artistic typography, they 
form a class of literature which is doing much for the 
education and advancement of the race. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

NOTHING in written composition makes so unfav- 
orable an impression or is so inexcusable as bad 
spelling. The most vulnerable point of attack up- 
on the modern school, because it is so openly perceivable, 
is the orthography employed by the children. It is easy 
to make unfair comparisons, and in this case it is pecul- 
iarly true that "distance lends enchantment to the 
view" — the distance of time. With the few subjects 
taught in the early school and with the drill that could 
be given to each, in many respects the teaching could be 
thorough. But the method employed of teaching spelling 
— the oral method exclusively — is false. A few children, 
drilled in the daily lesson, encouraged by schemes of emu- 
lation, and exhibitedat the spelling-bee, became proficient 
in oral spelling. Not many of the pupils of a school, even 
under these stimuli, became good spellers, while it often 
occurred that a good oral speller failed to spell well in 
writing. The boy who stood at the head of his class in 
spelling could not always spell correctly when he wrote a 
letter. Hence the real end to be sought in spelling was 
missed. There is abundant evidence that a larger pro- 
portion of the pupils of the modern school would stand 
such practical test in spelling better than those of a 
generation ago, and it is very probable that the same 
would be true with oral spelling. 

The English language, being so unphonetic, is difficult 
in its orthography. There are some rules which will be 
presented later, but a great deal is a mere matter of 



66 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

memory. This has led to a determined effort to reform 
the spelling and simplify it. Some changes have been 
made from time to time and others are in progress. 
Phonic drill which is practiced in the reading lessons, 
while it aids in enunciation, does not help much in spell- 
ing. 

It was never so important that children learn to spell 
well as it is now; hence the large amount of writing, in 
which the pupils are called upon not only to compose, 
but to spell the words they use. And the ability to spell 
is of increasing practical utility. There are many occu- 
pations in which this ability is absolutely essential, — 
such as, typewriting, printing, bookkeeping, correspon- 
dence, etc. Large numbers of persons secure employment 
in these fields, and therefore the school in laying stress 
upon good spelling is preparing for life in the most useful 
and practical sense. 

A few years ago the spelling book was thrown out of 
the school, and the geography, history, and reading book 
were resorted to for the words to spell. '^Teach the 
child to spell the words he needs to use," was the rally- 
ing-cry. This was excellent theory, but it was soon 
found there was a decided retrograde in the spelling of 
the children. Teaching spelling as incidental does not 
suffice. Indeed, the words that the child uses, selected 
from whatever source, must be taught him; but he must 
also receive the systematic, carefully planned instruc- 
tion which is outlined in the right kind of a spelling 
book. 

There must be a great deal of drill, repetition, and 
review. The spelling book, with its properly arranged 
words and sentences, makes such drill easy. Hence a 
text-book will be found a great aid to the teacher and 
very valuable to the children. But the teacher must not 
be wedded to that, but must teach the child in addition 



OR THOGRAPHY 67 

how to spell the words which he uses, from whatever 
source obtained. 

A large part of the time will be devoted to written 
spelling. This is because there is but little use for any 
other. Yet oral spelling also has its place. Some chil- 
dren are ear-minded and can fix an idea better by hear- 
ing it expressed than by seeing it. Then there are 
occasions when it is of importance to be able to spell 
orally. The presentation of a truth by two different 
methods, or from more than one standpoint, often serves 
to fix it more firmly in the mind. Hence it would be 
well if there were a revival of the old-fashioned spelling- 
bee, the "going up" in class, the "spelling down," in 
addition to the constant drill in writing. 

While a knowledge of the rules of spelling alone will 
not make a good speller, a few simple rules, amply illus- 
trated, may be of great aid. The rule should be explained 
to the pupil, many examples under it brought forward, 
and when it is thoroughly understood, the rule itself 
should be committed to memory. 

Questions and Answers. 

1. What is orthography ? 

Orthography is that science which treats of the nature 
and power of letters, and teaches correct spelling. 

2. Define orthoepy. 

Orthoepy is the art of correct pronunciation. 

J. What is phonology ? 

Phonology or phonetics is the science of the elemen- 
tary sounds uttered by the human voice in speech, includ- 
ing the various distinctions, modifications, and combina- 
tions of tones. 



68 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

^. How is a standard for correct prommciation a7id 
spelling obtained? 

By studying the usages of the best writers and speak- 
ers. By taking a standard dictionary as authority. 

5. What dictionaries are regarded as authorities ? 
Webster's, Worcester's, The Century, and The Stand- 
ard. 

6. What is an eleinentary sound? 

An elementary sound is a distinct, simple sound. 

y. Name and define the classes of elementary sounds. 

(1) A vocal is an unmodified, and uninterrupted sound. 

(2) A sub- vocal is a sound which is modified by the 
organs of speech. 

(3) An aspirate is a mere breathing, and is sometimes 
modified by the organs of speech. 

8. How are the different elementary somids indicated? 
The different elementary sounds are indicated by the 
use of letters and diacritical marks. 

p. Name the diacritical marks and tell use of each. 

The macron (-). 

(1) Over a vowel indicates the long sound; as in me. 

(2) Over g and across -e, hard sounds; as in game, -eat. 

(3) Under e as a substitute for long a; under n as a 
substitute for ng; as in prey, ink. 

The breve ("). 

(1) Indicates the short sound; as in m^n. 

The dieresis ( •• ). 

(1) Over a indicates the Italian a; as in harm. 

(2) Over i', a substitute for long e ; as in valise. 

(3) Under a, the broad a, under o, the slender o, under 
u, a substitute for o; as in saw, do, rumor. 

The semi-dieresis (•). 

(1) Over a indicates the short Italian a; as in last. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 69 

(2) Over 6, a substitute for short u, under 9, a substi- 
tute for medial u ; as in come, woman. 

(3) Over g, the soft sound; as in gentle. 

(4) Under a, substitute for short o, under u, substitute 
for medial u; as in was, pull. 

The cedilla (,). 

Under 5 alone, or in gh, a substitute for s; as in gede, 
maghine. 

The tilde, or wave {-). 

(1) Over e and 1, as in germ, whirl. 

(2) Over n indicates that the following vowel is to be 
pronounced as if preceded by y ; as in pinon. 

The caret(v). 

(1) Over a indicates medial or modified a, over e, indi- 
cates a substitute for medial a, over 6 indicates a substi- 
tute for broad a; as in care, there, nor. 

(2) Over u, neutral u; as in iarn. 
The suspended bar (-ro- 
under s as a substitute for z, and under x as a substi- 

tute for gz; as in easy, exert. 

10. Why are words divided into syllables ? 

Words are divided into syllables to indicate the proper 
pronunciation, and to show their derivation or composi- 
tion. 

11. What is a syllable ? 

A syllable is an elementary sound or a combination of 
elementary sounds uttered together. 

12. What is essential in every syllable ? 
Every syllable must contain a vowel. 

7j. How may a word be divided at the end of a line ? 
A word may be divided at the end of a line only be- 
tween syllables. 

14.. What is accent ? 



70 SEELE Y 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Accent is the act of giving prominence to one syllable 
over another in a word. 

75. Name the accents. 
Primary accent is the principal accent. 
Secondary accent is a partial or slight accent. 
Common accent is the ordinary accent. 
Discriminative accent is that given to words of the 
same articulation to distinguish different parts of speech. 

16. How are accents indicated? 

Primary accent is shown by a heavy accent mark; as 
at tack/. Secondary accent is indicated by a lighter 
mark; as im'po si^tion. 

77. What principles help in determining the accents of a 
word? 

(1) In words of two syllables, the first is usually 
accented. 

(2) In words of three or more syllables the secondary 
accent generally precedes the primary. 

(3) Derivatives retain their original accent. 

18. What are the rules for accent ? 

*Rule I. All words ending in sion^ tion^ cial, sial, tial^ 
cian^ tian^ cient^ ceous, tious^ and tiate, are accented on 
the last syllable but one. 

Rule II. Words ending in tude^ efy, ify^ ety, ity, logy, 
graphy, loquy^ athy^ ^metry^ tomy, meter ^ gonal, fluous^ 
fluent^ porous^ are accented on the last syllable but two. 

Rule III. Words of more than two syllables, ending in 
cate^ date, gate, fy, tude, iy, preceded by a vowel, are 
usually accented on the last syllable but two. 

Rule IV. Many dissyllables when used as nouns have 
the accent on the first syllable, and when used as verbs 
on the second. 

*These rules are taken from Irish's Orthography and Orthoepy. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 71 

/p. What is pronunciation ? 

Pronunciation is the utterance of the sounds of a word 
with correct articulation and accent. 

20. Why is it difficult to pronounce the English language 
correctly ? 

The many idioms and exceptions to rules, the fact that 
the number of elementary sounds exceeds the number of 
letters in the alphabet, and the carelessness in everyday 
use of the language, make its correct pronunciation 
difficult. 

21. What should serve as guides to correct pronuncia- 
tion ? 

The analogies of the language, the authority of stand- 
ard lexicographers, and the use which prevails among 
the best educated portion of the people to whom the 
language is vernacular. 

22. Give rules for pronunciation. 

(1) Pronounce words according to their spelling, 
analogy, or diacritical markings. 

(2) Pronounce so as to show differences in meaning. 

(3) Observe the principles and rules of accent. 

2j. What is a letter ? 

A letter is a visible character representing an articu- 
late sound. 

2^. What is an alphabet ? 

An alphabet is a complete list of the letters of a lan- 
guage arranged in customary order. 

2^. What is the origin of the EnglisJi alphabet ? 

Cadmus, a Phoenician, introduced letters into Greece 
in the fifteenth century, B. C. The English alphabet 
sprang from the Phoenician through the Greek, Roman, 
and Anglo-Saxon alphabets. It is really the Latin 
alphabet with the addition of the letters W and K. 



72 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

26. How many letters m the English alphabet ? 
There are twenty-six letters. 

2^. What is the name of a letter ? Which of the letters 
name tJiemselves ? 

The name of a letter is the appellation by which it is 
known. 

The vowels, a^ e, 2, and u^ name themselves. 

28. What is the power of a letter? 

The power of a letter is the sound which the letter 
represents in a word, or its influence upon another letter. 

2g. How are letters divided as to form? As to sound? 

Letters are divided as to form into two classes; cap- 
itals and small letters. 

As to sound, they are also divided into two classes; 
vowels and consonants. 

JO. What is a vowel? 

A vowel is a letter which represents an unmodified or 
uninterrupted vocal sound. 

J/. What is a diphthong? Name the proper diphthongs. 

A diphthong consists of two vowels sounded together 

in the same syllable. The proper diphthongs are ou^ 

ozu, oi^ oy. 

J2. What is a digraph ? Illustrate. 

A digraph consists of two vowels written together, 
one of which is silent, or both representing a single 
sound; as ^/, gain; aa^ Canaan. 

jj. What is a trigraph ? Illustrate. 

A trigraph consists of three vowels written together in 
the same syllable, one or two of which are silent; as eau^ 
beauty. 

j^. Name the vowels and give examples of the sounds of 
each. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 73 

The vowels are a^ e^ /, 0^ u^ w, and y. 

a long, as in fate 1 substitute, as in firm 

^ short, as in m^t o long, as in old 

a medial, as in bare d short, as in hot 

a Italian, as in palm o before r, as in or 

a short Italian, as in path o as in do 

a broad, as in all 6 as in son 

a substitute, as in what o as in woman 

e long, as in eve 00 long, as is moon 

g short, as in fell 00 short, as in foot 

e obtuse, as in term u long, as in ttise 

e substitute, as in fete u short, as in ttib 

e substitute, as in prey u after r, as in rude 

i long, as in ice u as in pull 

1 short, as in ill vl before r, as in urn 

i' substitute, as in police 

J5. When is the long sound of a used? 

A has its long sound when it ends an accented syllable, 
when followed by a consonant and silent e^ and in the 
digraphs ^/ and <^jr; as cable, cane, rail. 

jd. When has a the sJioi^t sound? 

A has the short sound when followed by a single con- 
sonant in the same syllable, when followed by more than 
one consonant in the same syllable; as barrel, lack. 

J/. When are the long and. short sounds of e used? 

E has the long sound when it ends an accented sylla- 
ble, and usually when followed by a single consonant and 
silent final e\ as medium, intercede. 

The short sound of e is generally used when followed 
by one or more consonants in the same syllable; as r^st, 
frgt. 

jc?. When is the long sound of i used? When the short 
sound? 



74 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The long sound of i is used at the end of an accented 
syllable, in accented syllables when followed by a conso- 
nant and final ^, and in monosyllables; as Friday, line, 
sign. In the digraph ie^ e has the long sound and i is 
silent; as chief. 

/usually has the short sound when followed by one or 
more consonants in a monosyllable or an accented 
syllable; as lip, misery. 

jp. When are the long and short sounds of o used? 

The long sound of o is generally used when it ends an 
accented syllable, or when followed by a single consonant 
and silent final e\ notion, note. 

In many words, o has the short sound when followed 
by a consonant (except r) in an accented syllable or a 
monosyllable; as monarch, log. 

/J.O. When are the long and short sounds of u used? 

The long sound of u is generally used at the end of an 
accented syllable, and when followed by a single conso- 
nant and the final ^; as mural, tube. 

The short sound of u is used when followed by a conso- 
nant in the same syllable; as ntin. 

^i. What is a consonant ? 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be fully uttered 
without the aid of a vowel sound. The sound of a conso- 
nant letter is always modified or interrupted by the 
organs of speech. 

^2. What is a mute ? Name the mutes. 

A mute is a consonant which represents an explosive 
sound. It is formed by a position of the mouth organs 
which stop the passage of the breath. The mutes are 
/, ^, /, d^ k, hard c and g. 

4.J. What is a semivowel? Name the semivowels. 

A semivowel is a sound intermediate between a vowel 



ORTHOGRAPHY 75 

and a consonant. It represents a continuous sound which 
is only partially affected by the vocal organs. The semi- 
vowels are soft c, /, //, j, soft g^ /, in^ n, r, j, v^ w^ x, jy, ^, 
and all the consonant combinations, i/i, c/i, sk, s/i, wh^ 
ng. 

^^. Name and define the organical divisions of the con- 
sonants and name the letters of each division. 

(1) Labials are those letters whose sounds are modified 
by the lips. They are b, /", m^ /, v, w^ wh. 

(2) Dentals are those letters whose sounds are formed 
by the aid of the teeth. The dentals are/, d, /, s^ z, c 
and g soft, cJi^ sh, and zh. 

(3) Linguals are letters whose sounds are modified by 
the tongue. L, n, r, y, d^ /, and th are linguals. 

(4) Palatals are those letters whose sounds are modi- 
fied by the palate. Kard c and g, k^ q^ ,r, and ng are 
palatals. 

^5. What are subvocals ? Name them. 

Subvocals are consonants which are obstructed by the 
vocal organs, in the process of articulation. The sub- 
vocals are ^, d^ /, /, /;/, ;/, r, v^ w^ y^ z^ th^ zh, ng, hard 
and soft g. 

4.6. What are aspirates ? Name them. 

Aspirates are sounds made by the breath, usually 
modified by the organs of speech. The aspirates are c, 
y, h, k, p, q, s, /, th, ch, sh, wh. 

4.y. What letters are called liquids ? Why ? 
Z, m, n, and r are called liquids because their sounds 
unite readily with those of other letters. 

4.8. What are the uses of silent letters ? Give examples. 

Silent letters are used to modify the sound of vowels 

or consonants, to determine signification or origin, and 



76 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

to distinguish homonyms. In mane^ silent e indicates 
the long sound of a. In guide the hard sound of g is 
indicated by the silent u. In Knight and night, the silent 
letter determines the meaning. In honour, the u shows 
the French extraction of the word, while its omission 
gives honor, a word of Latin origin. The silent a in 
aisle distinguishes this word from its homonym, isle. 

^g. What letters are never silent ? 

The letters which are never silent 2iVe f, j\ q, r, v, z. 

50. When are the following letters silent : b, c, d, e, g, 
h, k, /, n, /, t, w ? 

B is silent before t or after m\ as in de^^t, lim^. 

C is silent before k and sometimes before /; as in 
rack, indict. 

D is silent before^ in the same syllable; as in ju^ge. 

Final e is silent when preceded by another vowel in the 
same syllable; as in name. In a digraph one vowel is 
always silent; as in me,.^t feud. 

G is silent before m or n\ as in resign, ^nome. 

H is silent after g or r, when final and preceded by a 
vowel, and sometimes at the beginning of a word; as in 
g/^ost, R/nne, hurra/2, /honesty. 

iTis silent before 7i\ as in /^nee. 

L is usually silent after a when followed by m, /, ox k\ 
as in pa/m, ba/k. 

A^is silent when final after /or in\ as in VWn, autum;^. 

P before n, s, or / at the beginning of a word is silent; 
as in/neumatic, /sychology, /tyalin. 

Zis silent before ch sometimes after j; as in ca^ch, 
ches/nut. 

H^is silent before r\ as in 2£/rap. 

^i. What is a substitute ? 

A substitute is a letter or combination of letters repre- 
senting a sound usually represented by another letter. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 77 

^2. ^Name and give examples of the substitutes. 

Long a has one substitute, e\ as in fete, they. 

jS is a substitute for medial a\ as in heir. 

Broad a has one substitute, o\ as in ought. 

Long e has two substitutes, /and j/; as in valise, quay. 

Shorts has two substitutes, a and u\ as in many, 
burial. 

Obtuse e has two substitutes, i and j/; as in fir, myrrh. 

Long i has one substitute, y; as in chyme. 

Short /has four substitutes, y^ e, u^ 0; as in rhythm, 
English, business, women. 

Long has two substitutes, au^ ew\ as in bureau, sew. 

Short has one substitute, ^; as in what. 

Long u has one substitute, w\ as in knew. 

Short u has one substitute, <?; as in none. 

D has one substitute,/; as in prejudice. 
F has two substitutes, //?, and^>^; as in phonograph, 
tough. 

K has four substitutes, hard c^ q, ch, and gh ; as in 
chronic, bouquet, choral, lough. 

5 has two substitutes, soft c, and z; as in city, quartz. 

T has one substitute, ed when final after an aspirate ; 
as in blessed. 

Fhas two substitutes, /and/^; as in of, Stephen. 

PFhas one substitute u\ as in quick. 

The consonant jF has one substitute i; as in million. 

Z has three substitutes s, c and x\ as in was, sacrifice, 
xylophone. 

5J. What is a word? 

A word is the sign of an idea. 

5^. How are words classed as to form ? How^ as to 
origin ? 

♦Writers differ greatly on this subject. The list given is based upon that 
found in Irish's Orthography. 



78 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Words are classed as to form, as simple and compound 
words. As to origin, as primitive and derivative words. 

55. What is a simple word? 

A simple word is a single word, either primitive or 
derivative; as book, orator. 

^6. What is a compound word? 

A compound word is made up of two or more simple 
words; as, housewife, alehouse. 

57. What is a primitive word? 

A primitive word is one not derived from any other 
word in the language; as, strong. 

58. What is a derivative word? 

A derivative word is one formed by adding a prefix or 
suffix, or both, to a primitive word; as, stronger. 

5p. Define prefix^ suffix^ root word. 

A prefix is a letter or syllable joined to the beginning 
of a word to modify its meaning. 

A suffix is a letter or syllable joined to the end of a 
word to modify its meaning. 

A root word is a word from which other words are 
formed. 

60. How are words divided according to syllables ? 

Words are divided according to syllables into mono- 
syllables or words of one syllable; dissyllables, or words 
of two syllables; trisyllables, or words of three syllables; 
polysyllables, or words of four or more syllables. 

61. Give the leading rules for the division of words into 
syllables. 

Rule I. The members of a compound word form sepa- 
rate syllables; as mill-stone. 

Rule II. A diphthong, digraph or trigraph must not 
be separated into syllables; as bu-reau, rain. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 79 

Rule III. Two vowels coming together but sounded 
separately belong to separate syllables; as sci-ence, 
a-eri-al. 

Rule IV. Prefixes and suffixes are generally separated 
from the body of the word; as con-duct-or. 

Rule V. When a single consonant comes between two 
sounded vowels it naturally joins the following vowel; 
as, fla-vor. 

Rule VI. When two or more consonants, capable of 
beginning a syllable, come between two sounded vowels, 
all may be joined to the following vowel, or one may be 
joined to the preceding vowel; as se-cret, ves-per. 

Rule VII. When two or more consonants not capable 
of beginning a syllable, come between sounded vowels, 
part, but not all of them, are joined to the preceding 
vowels; as min-strel. 

Rule VIII. In writing and printing, no syllable is 
separable which does not contain a vowel. 

62. Name and define the two kinds of spelling. 

Phonetic spelling is uttering in order the phonic ele- 
ments of which a word is composed. Orthographic 
spelling is the naming or writing, in proper order, of the 
letters of a word. 

6j. Give the principal rules for spelling. 

Rule I. Final silent e is dropped when a syllable be- 
ginning with a vowel is added to a word, but is retained 
if the added syllable begins with a consonant; as, live, 
living; live, lively. 

Rule II. In monosyllable ending in /, /, or s^ the 
final letter is doubled if preceded by a single vowel; as 
hill. 

Rule III. Monosyllables and words accented on the 
last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a 



8o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

single vowel, double the final consonant when a syllable 
beginning with a vowel is added; as, begin, beginning. 

Rule IV. In monosyllables ending with hard r, k is 
added; as, clock. 

Rule V. When a suffix is added to a word ending in j/ 
preceded by a consonant, the j^ is changed to i\ as lively, 
livelier. 

Rule VI. Compound words usually retain the spelling 
of the simple words of which they are composed; as, 
watchword. 

6^. Define and give exa^nples of synonyms. 

Synonyms are words which have nearly the same 
meaning and therefore may be often used interchange- 
ably; as empty, vacant; hasten, expedite, hurry. 

6^. What are homonyms ? Illustrate. 
Homonyms are words having the same sound but dif- 
fering in meaning; as clime, climb; air, ere, heir. 

66. Give the rules for the use of capital letters. 
Capital letters are used : 

[1) To begin the first word of every sentence. 

[2) To begin all proper names. 

[3) To begin all titles of honor. 

[4) In writing the pronoun /and the interjection O. 
;5) To begin the first word of every line of poetry. 
;6) To begin the names of objects personified. 

[7) To begin appellations of the Deity. 

[8) To begin names of the days of the week, and of 
the months. 

[9) To begin direct quotations. 

(10) To begin words derived from proper names. 

(11) To begin chief words of titles of books. 

(12) To begin words of special importance, titles of 
honor or office, etc. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 8i 

6j. Give a list of the most common prefixes. 

English — 

a=on or in; a-live, a-board 
after=:behind; after-thought 
be=to make; be-numb 
for=against; for-bid 
fore=:before; fore-arm 
mid = middle; mid-night 
mis= wrong; mis-shapen 
out = beyond; out- ride 
over=above, in excess; over-step 
un=not; un-happy 
under=beneath; under-stand 
with=against; with-hold 

Latin — 

a, ab, abs=from; a-vert, ab-solve 

ad (ac, ap, at, etc.)^to; ac-cept 

amb, am = about; am-biguous 

ante, anti=: before; anti-cipate 

bis, bi = twice; bi-sect 

bene = well; bene-fit 

circum = around; circum-scribe 

com, con=:::together; com-mand 

contra, counter=against; contra-diet 

de=down; de-scent 

dis, di, dif=:apart; dis-perse 

ex, e, ef=from; ex-pend 

en=in, on; en-trap 

in = in; in-spect 

in^not; in-competent 

inter=between; inter-cede 

mal=ill; mal-treat 

non=not; non-sense 

ob=against; ob-struct 



82 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

pene, pen=almost; pen-insula 

per=through; per-mit 

post^after; post-pone 

pre = before; pre-cede 

pro=forward; pro-gress 

pro= instead of; pro-noun 

re=back; re-turn 

retro=backwards; retro-grade 

se, sed=apart; sed-ition 

semi=half; semi-annual 

sub, subter=under; sup-press, subter-fuge 

super, sur=:above; super-scription 

trans=across; trans-mit 

un, uni=:one; una-nimous 

vice=instead of; vice-roy 

Greek — 

a, an= without; an-archy 
ana=up, through; ana-lysis 
anti=:against; anti-dote 
apo=:away; apo-state 
archi=chief; archi-tect 
auto=:self; auto-mobile 
cata=over; cata-log 
dia=through; dia-gonal 
dis, di = twice; di-pthong 
dys=ill; dys-entery 
eu, ev = well; eu-logy 
hemi=half; hemi-sphere 
hy per = over; hyper-critical 
hypo=under; hypo-crite 
mono=alone; mono-poly 
pan=all; pan-orama 
par, para=beside; par-allel 
poly = many; poly-gon 
pro= before; pro-phet 



ORTHOGRAPHY 83 



syn = with; syllable 
tele = far; tele-phone 

68. Give a list of the most common suffixes. 

English — 

ar, er=doer; bak-er 

dom = condition; free-dom 

en = made of; gold-en 

er=:more; cold-er 

ern=: pertaining to; west-ern 

est=most; cold-est 

fold=times; two-fold 

ful=fullof; hope-ful 

hood = state of; child-hood 

ish=like; girl-ish 

less= without; hope-less 

ly=like; man-ly 

ness=state of being; kind-ness 

ship = office of; judge-ship 

some=full of; lone-some 

y = belonging to; rock-y 

Latin — 

able = capable of; peace-able 
acity, acy=quality; loqu-acity 
an = belonging to; Greci-an 
ance=state of being; endur-ance 
at=one who; deleg-ate 
ent=onethat; resid-ent 
fy=to make; puri-fy 
ice= the thing that; just-ice 
il=quality; gent-ile 
ion = state of being; connect-ion 
ite=one who; favor-ite 
ment:=act of; judg-ment 
mony=:state of being; matri-mony 



84 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

or=onewho; invent-or 
ory=:place where; laborat-ory 
ous=fullof; danger-ous 
ple=^fold; multi-pie 
tude==state of being ; magni-tude 
ty=state of being; plen-ty 

Greek — 

ac, ic=pertaining to; Homer-ic 
archy, cracy=government; mon-archy 
graphy=writing; tele-graphy 
ics=:science of; econom-ics 
ise=to make; adver-tise 
ism=doctrine; Method-ism 
ist=:one who; evangel-ist 
logy=science of ; geo-logy 

French — 

age=:state of being ; lugg-age 
ee=one to whom ; mortgag-ee 
eer=one who; engin-eer 
ery=condition ; rival-ry 
ette, let=little; statu-ette, rivu-let 

6q. Give some of the derivatives of the root ''''act,'" 

act=to do or make. 
act-or=one who acts. 
act-ion=:the process of acting. 
act-ive=:full of action. 
act-ively=in an active manner. 
act-ivity=:state of action. 
act-lessr=without action. 
act-ual=:involving an act. 
act-uate=to incite to action. 
counter-act=to act against. 
en-act=to make by law. 
ex-act=to make or take from. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 85 



ex-action=a taking from. 
ex-actly=in a correct manner. 



re-act 


; to act against. 


re-en- 


act to make over. 


70. Make a 


/ist of the most common abbreviations. 


A. M. 


. Before noon. 


Ave. 


Avenue. 


A. M 


. Master of Arts. 


A. B. 


Bachelor of Arts. 


A. D, 


In the year of Our Lord 


Amt. 


Amount. 


Agt. 


Agent. 


Acct. 


Account. 


Ans. 


Answer. 


Adj. 


Adjective. 


Adv. 


Adverb. 


Apr. 


April. 


Aug. 


August. 


Bal. 


Balance. 


Bbl. 


Barrel. 


B. C. 


Before Christ. 


Bro. 


Brother. 


Capt. 


Captain. 


Col. 


Colonel. 


Chap. 


Chapter. 


c. 0. 


D. Collect on Delivery. 


Cr. 


Credit. 


Ct. < 


Cent. 


Cwt. 


Hundred weight. 


Dec. 


December. 


Dem. 


Democrat. 


Dept. 


Department. 


Diet. 


Dictionary. 


Do. 


Ditto. 



86 



SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 



Dol. 


Dollar. 


Dr. 


Debtor. 


Dr. 


Doctor. 


Esq. 


Esquire. 


Etc. 


And so forth. 


Ex. 


Example. 


Elec. 


Electricity. 


Eng. 


England. 


Feb. 


February. 


Fern. 


Feminine. 


Fri. 


Friday. 


Ft. 


Foot or fort. 


Fut. 


Future. 


F. O. 


B. Free on board. 


Gen. 


General. 


Gent, 


. Gentleman. 


Geo. 


George. 


Geog 


. Geography. 


Gov. 


Governor. 


Hdki 


:. Handkerchief. 


Hhd. 


Hogshead. 


Hon. 


Honorable. 


Interj. Interjection. 


Jan. 


January. 


J. P. 


Justice of the Peace. 


Jul. 


July. 


Jr. 


Junior. 


Lb. 


Pound. 


LL. 


D. Doctor of Laws. 


Long. Longitude. 


Mag 


Magazine. 


M. 


Noon. 


Mar. 


March. 


Mas. 


Masculine. 


M. C. Member of Congress 



ORTHOGRAPHY 87 



Mr. Mister. 

Messrs. Gentlemen. 

Mrs. Mistress. 

Nat. Natural. 

Naut. Nautical. 

N. B. Take notice. 

No. Number. 

Obj. Objective. 

Oct. October. 

Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy. 

P. M. Afternoon. 

P. M. Postmaster. 

P. O. Post Office. 

P. S. Postscript. 

Plu. Plural. 

Pk. Peck. 

Prof. Professor. 

Pt. Pint. 

Ques. Question. 

Qt. Quart. 

R. R. Railroad. 

Rep. Representative. 

Rep. Republican. 

Rev. Reverend. 

Sat. Saturday. 

Sun. Sunday. 

Sec. Secretary. 

Sing. Singular. 

Sr. Senior. 

S. S. Sunday School. 

St. Saint, Street, Strait. 

Subj. Subject. 

Supt. Superintendent. 

Sept. September. 

Tues, Tuesday. 



88 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Thurs. Thursday. 
U. S. United States. 
Wed. Wednesday. 
Yd. Yard. 



/I 



CHAPTER V. 

GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 

T IS argued by many that if the child is brought up 
in an environment where he is taught to speak cor- 
rect English he will never need to study formal 
grammar. No doubt it is a great advantage to begin 
life under such favorable circumstances, that is, in a 
home where only pure speech is heard, but such homes 
are rare. It is possible for parents to hedge their chil- 
dren about with barriers that protect them from intel- 
lectual as well as moral evils, but this cannot continue 
indefinitely. They must come in contact with others 
who have been less favored, they must enter life in busi- 
ness and social relations, and must be prepared to meet 
conditions as they find them. It is not sufficient to 
possess the habit of using correct language, though it 
will readily be admitted that this is the most important 
end to be reached, but the child must learn why his lan- 
guage is correct, must know the grammar of his native 
tongue. This will doubly fortify him in his speech and 
his written composition. The teacher must exercise 
great care to secure correct language from his pupils, in 
season and out of season, in every subject of instruction, 
and from the beginning of the school course. 

Landon says, "The study of grammar brings into 
relief and fixes in the pupil's mind a standard of accurate 
usage, fortifies him against the influence of bad examples 
by making clear the nature of wrong forms and faulty 
constructions, and renders his imitation of what is cor- 



90 SEELE Y'S Q UES TION BOOK 

rect more certain, rapid, and intelligent."* Not only is 
grammar essential to the understanding and use of the 
language, it has also a great disciplinary value. Aside 
from its utilitarian purpose, it is an important educa- 
tional means. 

We may ask, What must the teacher have before him 
as the end to be sought in this department of education? 
AVhat shall the teacher endeavor to accomplish with his 
pupils? In general, we may say that the end to be sought 
is the power habitually to use the English language with 
accuracy and fluency, whether spoken or written. This 
power should become so completely a habit that even in 
examinations and other supreme tests correct language 
will be used quite unconsciously. Thus the whole 
strength of the pupil can be given to the thought, to the 
answer demanded, and not to the expressing of that an- 
swer. This habit can be secured only through constant 
watchfulness on the part of the teacher. It is expected 
that the child shall employ correct English in every 
school exercise until the habit becomes fixed. 

There are three things to be taken into account in 
training the child to this power; namely, language les- 
sons, grammar, and composition. Let us study the 
function of each. 

I. Language Lessons. 

Formal grammar should be preceded by language 
lessons, which should begin upon the child's entrance to 
school and continue for four or five years. This work 
should gradually pass from the informal to the systematic 
until the child is ready to take up grammar, which is the 
formal study of language. According to Dr. White, 
there are two ends to be sought in language lessons: 
1st, "Facility in the expression of one's knowledge," and 
2d, "Skill in the use of the written forms of one's mother 

♦"Teaching and Class Management," p. 412. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 91 

tongue."* The child is led to talk about things familiar 
to him, suitable stories are told to him which he repro- 
duces, songs and poems are committed to memory, care 
being taken to explain the meaning of unfamiliar words. 
Nature Study will suggest an abundance of material for 
conversation and composition. Pictures may be ob- 
served and orally described, afterwards furnishing 
themes for original compositions. Biography and his- 
tory will also suggest material. In this connection 
letter-writing will receive attention, and capitalization, 
punctuation, and abbreviations will be given considera- 
tion. Through dictation exercises the child is taught 
the written forms of language and their use. 

While this is being done the child is gaining a vocabu- 
lary, and is also learning to use his language correctly 
and fluently. Besides this he will gain some insight into 
the simpler forms of grammar, such as the parts of 
speech and the construction of the simple sentence. The 
child can comprehend the terms noun or verb as easily as 
he can comprehend the terms name or action word. The 
necessity for his learning this material thus early becomes 
more apparent when we remember the large proportion 
of children who leave school before they reach their 
twelfth year. 

2. Grammar. 

We have shown that the unconscious absorption of the 
principles of language will not suffice. Attention must 
be directed to the science and art of language. "Eng- 
lish grammar has an important function in school train- 
ing, and no other study can take its place," says Dr. 
White. He adds further that it is not a child's study, 
and believes that in a twelve-year course about half the 
time should be devoted to language lessons and half to 
formal grammar. The purpose of grammar is to furnish 

*"Art of Teaching," p. 219. 



92 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

a standard whereby one may be sure as to the correctness 
of the English employed, whether spoken or written; to 
train the power of analytical judgment; to discipline the 
intellectual powers; to cultivate a taste for and apprecia- 
tion of the best thoughts that have been expressed in our 
tongue as presented in literature; and to systematize the 
child's knowledge of the forms of language. Much of 
grammar is abstract and therefore it should not be pre- 
sented to the child too early. Landon says, "Grammar 
is usually the child's first introduction to abstract think- 
ing." 

J. Composition. 

Composition goes hand in hand with the study of 
language lessons and grammar. Landon very clearly 
remarks that, "The teaching of compositions in school 
should be directed to secure the writing of plain, 
straightforward English prose, free from error and ob- 
scurity." He further shows that the ends to be sought 
are naturalness and simplicity, correctness, clearness, 
directness and force. Many teachers make the mistake 
of expecting pupils to write about things concerning 
which they know nothing. Letter-v/riting, reproduction 
of stories, biography, history, description of pictures and 
of individual experiences, such as visits, trips, etc., use 
of the facts obtained from nature study, will furnish an 
abundance of material quite suitable for composition 
work in all grades. The proper employment of composi- 
tion will strengthen all other language study. Indeed, 
no good work in grammar can be conducted without 
these written exercises. And it will also be interesting 
to the children who love to tell with pencil or pen as well 
as by vocal utterance. Composition thus taught will 
not be a bugbear or dread to children, but will be a con- 
stant source of delight and profitable instruction. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 93 

Questions and Answers. 

1. What is language ? 

Language is the name given to any means of express- 
ing or communicating thoughts or feelings. 

2. WJiat is grainmar ? 

Grammar is a record of the forms and construction of 
any language as used by its best speakers and writers. 

J. Define grafnmar as an art. As a science. 

As an art, grammar is the ability to read, write, and 
speak a language correctly. 

As a science, grammar is a systematic account of the 
principles and usages of a language with especial regard 
to the inflection of its parts of speech and their construc- 
tion in sentences. 

/J.. What is English graminar ? 

English grammar teaches of the principles and usages 
of the English language. 

5. What are the divisions of grammar ? 

Orthoepy, which treats of articulate sounds and their 
correct use. 

Orthography, which treats of letters, words, and spell- 
ing. 

Etymology, which treats of the classification, deriva- 
tion, and properties of words. 

Lexicography, which treats of the meaning of words. 

Syntax, which treats of the arrangement and construc- 
tion of sentences. 

Prosody, which treats of versification and punctuation. 

6. What is a sentence ? 

A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete 
thought. 



94 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

J. What are the classes of sentences according to mean- 
ing and use ? 

(1) A declarative sentence which states a fact. **The 
wind blows." 

(2) An imperative sentence, which expresses a com- 
mand or entreaty. "Go to the ant, thou sluggard." 

(3) An exclamatory sentence which expresses feeling 
or emotion. "Oh, that I were there! " 

(4) An interrogative sentence, which asks a question. 
"Why do you hesitate? " 

8. What are the two essential parts of a sentence ? De- 
fine each. 

The subject and the predicate. 

The predicate is that part of a sentence which makes 
an assertion. 

The subject is that part of which the assertion is made. 

p. What is analysis ? 

Analysis consists of separating a sentence into its 
parts. 

10. What is the natural order of a declarative sentence ? 
Of an interrogative sentence ? 

When a declarative sentence is in its natural order, the 
subject precedes the predicate. 

In an interrogative sentence the predicate (or part of 
it) precedes the subject. 

//. What is a compellative ? Give example. 

A word in a sentence used to attract or compel the 
attention of the person addressed, is called a compellative. 
"Backward, turn backward, O Ti^ne, in thy flight." 

12. What are parts of speech ? 

The classes into which words are divided according to 
their use, are called parts of speech. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 95 

ij. Name the parts of speech. 

Noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, 
conjunction, and interjection. 

7^. What is a noun ? 

A noun is a word or group of words used as a name. 

75, Name a7id define the two general classes of nouns. 

(1) A common noun is a name which belongs to a class 
of persons, places, or things. Cat, man, book. 

(2) A proper noun is the name of some particular per- 
son, place, or thing. Mary, Boston. 

16. What are the classes of cominon nouns ? 
Collective and abstract nouns. 

77. Define and give examples of each. 

(1) A collective noun is a name, that in the singular 
is applied to a collection or group of objects of the same 
class. K flock of sheep are feeding on the hillside. 

(2) An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action, 
or condition. In union there is strength. 

18. What is inflection ? 

Inflection, in grammar, is a change in the form of a 
word to mark a change in its meaning or use. 

7p. What parts of speech are inflected? 
Nouns, pronouns, verbs, and some adjectives, are 
inflected. 

20. What is declension f 

The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declen- 
sion. 

21. What are the properties of a noun ? 
Gender, person, number, and case. 

22. Which of these are indicated by inflection ? 
Gender, number, and the possessive case. 



96 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

2^. What is munber f 

Number is that property of a noun which distinguishes 
one from more than one. 

2^. How many numbers are there ? What does each 
denote ? 

There are two numbers. Singular number denotes 
but one. Plural number denotes more than one. 

2^. How is number usually indicated? 

Most nouns indicate number by a change in termina- 
tions, but personal pronouns require an entire change of 
words. 

26. Explain and give examples of the two ways in 
which plurals are formed. 

(1) Most nouns form their plurals regularly, by adding 
s or es to the singular; as hat^ hats. 

(2) Others form their plurals irregularly, usually by 
an entire change of word; as, man^ men. 

2J. Give examples of the formation of plurals of nouns 
endijig in f, />, jf', y and preceded by a consonant, y and 
preceded by a vowel. 

Thief, thieves; chief, chiefs; knife, knives; fife, fifes; 
bluff, bluffs; pony, ponies; calico, calicoes; solo, solos; 
key, keys; oratorio, oratorios. 

28. Give examples of irregular plurals. 
Ox, oxen; foot, feet; mouse, mice. 

2g. What nouns have the same form for both singular 
a7id plural? 

Deer, sheep, swine, trout, cannon, heathen, and nouns 
ending in ese, denoting race ; as, Chinese. 

JO. What nouns are used only in the singular? 
Abstract nouns and names of materials are seldom used 
except in the singular. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 97 

J7. Name some nouns which are always plurai,. 
Ashes, tongs, scissors, tidings, trousers, mumps, 
measles, victuals, thanks, riches. 

J2. Give examples of nouns which are plural in form 
but singular in meaning. 

News, politics, mathematics, gallows, optics, ethics. 

jj. When does a noun have two plurals ? 

When the meanings of the plurals are different; as, 
brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same 
society). 

j^. Hoiv is the plural of letters and other characters 
formed ? 

By adding 's. Two a's. 

J5. How should the plural of proper names be expressed? 
By making the title plural, or pluralizing the name 
itself. Messrs. Ray, the Misses Lee. 

jd. How is the plural of compound words formed ? 

In compound words, the part described by the rest is 
generally pluralized ; as steamboats, sisters-in-law. 

When the two words are in the nature of appositives, 
both are made plural ; as. Knights Templars. 

jy. What are the plurals of foreign nouns? 
Foreign nouns adopted into our language generally 
retain their original plural. 

^8. Why is the deter inination of the number of norms 
important ? 

Because the number of the noun determines that of its 
verb and also of the pronoun of which it is the ante- 
cedent. 

jp. What is gender? 



98 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Gender is the distinction of nouns and pronouns with 
regard to sex. 

/J.O. Name the genders and tell what each signifies. 

(1) Masculine gender denotes males. 

(2) Feminine gender denotes females. 

(3) Such nouns as have nothing to do with defining 
sex are said to be of the neuter gender. 

(4) Nouns that may be applied to either sex, or, as in 
the case of animals, names that do not indicate sex, are 
sometimes spoken of as being of common gender. 

If there is anything in the sentence, however, to indi- 
cate sex, the noun should be classed as masculine or 
feminine. 



^i. In how many and what ways 


may 


the gender of 


nouns be indicated? 






(1) By the use of different words: 






MASCULINE 




FEMININE 


nephew 




niece 


king 




queen 


wizard 




witch 


(2) By different terminations: 






actor 




actress 


czar 




czarina 


testator 




testatrix 


(3) By the use of a distinguishing 


word 




man-servant 




maid-servant 


landlord 




landlady 


Mr. Gray 




Mrs. Gray 



/J.2. What of the gender of a collective 7toup ? 

When a collective noun is used in the plural, or when 
the objects are considered as a unit, it is neuter gender; 
when it is used otherwise its gender is that of the indi- 
viduals composing the collection. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 99 

The jurj/ has announced its decision. 
The c/ass received tketr diplomas. 

^j. What is personification ? 

Personification is a figure of speech by which gender is 
ascribed to inanimate objects. When strength, power, 
or violence is implied, such nouns are regarded as mascu- 
line; if gentleness, beauty or peace is ascribed, then they 
are classed as feminine. 

"The Sun holds his fiery course through mid-heaven." 

' ' When Fortune means to men most good 

She looks upon them with a threatening eye. ' ' 

^^. Define person. 

Person is that distinction in nouns and pronouns 
which shows whether they represent the speaker, the 
person spoken to, or the person or object spoken of. 

^5. Notms are usually in the third person. Show by 
sentences how the same noun 7nay be used to denote dif- 
ferent sentences. 

I, John^ saw him. (First person.) 

John., did you see him? (Second person.) 

yt7^;2 saw him. (Third person.) 

4.6. What is case f 

The word case is used to indicate the three relations 
which a noun or pronoun may hold to other words in the 
sentence. 

^7. Name and define the cases. 

(1) The nominative case is the case of the subject. 

(2) The possessive case denotes possession. 

(3) The objective case is the use of the noun or pro- 
noun as the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition. 

48. Illustrate by sentences the different uses of the 
nominative case. 

tofC. 



loo SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

(1) As the subject of a verb ; The birds sing. 

(2) As a predicate, or the noun complement of an 
intransitive verb; Henry is the captain of the ball team. 

(3) As an appositive to another nominative; Kipling, 
the author of "The Jungle Books," is an Englishman. 

(4) As a compellative, or nominative, of address; J/<3:r^, 
go and call the cattle home. 

(5) As the nominative absolute, with a participle; The 
raiyi having ceased, we resumed our journey. 

4.g. How is the possessive case of nouris shown ? 

By the addition of the apostrophe and s, to the nomina- 
tive form, unless that ends in s^ then only the apos- 
trophe is added. 

50. How else may possession be show7t ? 

By the use of the preposition of. Our present termi- 
nation '.$■, is a contraction of the old English possessive es. 

57. What nouns are inflected to denote possession ? 

Such nouns as are names of persons, animals or person- 
ified objects are inflected to denote possession. In all 
other cases, it is best to use the possessive phrase. 

^2. How is the possessive case of compound ter7ns 
formed? 

(1) Generally compound terms take the sign of posses- 
sion at the end; yiy father-in-law's house was burned. 
Whitney and Lockwood's grammar. 

.(2) If, however, separate possession is implied, then 
each noun should have the sign; White's and Milne's 
arithmetics. 

(3) In an appositive construction the sign is added to 
the last noun; That is Mr. Brown, the baker's wagon. 

^j. Show by sentences the different uses of the objective 
case . 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION loi 

(1) As the direct object of a verb; Success crowned 
our efforts. 

(2) As the indirect object of a verb; He paid the men 
their wages. 

(3) After prepositions; The robin built her nest in the 
ehn tree. 

(4) In apposition with another objective; I took my 
watch to Mr. Long, thQ Jeweler. 

(5) As an object predicate or complement; The Turks 
call their ruler Sultati, 

(6) As an adverbial object, to express time, measure, 
age, value, etc. ; He waited an hoicr. The hill is nearly 
a thousand y^^/ high. 

5/. What is an appositive ? What determines its case ? 

An appositive is a noun used to explain, emphasize, or 
identify another noun or pronoun. It must be in the 
same case as the word it represents. 
Bryant, \}\^ poet^ translated the Iliad. (Nominative.) 
I have seen Venus the evening star. (Objective.) 
Peter the Hermifs eloquence aroused the people. 
(Possessive.) 

55. What is a pronoun ? 

x\ pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

5<5. What is the difference between a noun and a pro- 
noun ? 

(1) A noun is a name, a pronoun does not really name 
anything. 

(2) A pronoun is never qualified by an adjective placed 
just before it. 

57. What are the classes of pronouns ? 
Personal, relative or conjunctive, interrogative, and 
adjective pronouns. 

^8. What is a personal pronoun ? 



102 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

A personal pronoun is one which shows by its form 
whether it is of the first, second, or third person. 

5p. Define antecedent. 

That for which the pronoun stands, is its antecedent. 

60. What may the antecedent of a pronoun be f 
A word ; Tom has lost his book. 

A phrase; He hoped to see his friend but it was denied 
him. 

A clause; He sold his property ^ and now he regrets it. 

61. Name the forms of the pronoun of the first person. 
I, we, my, mine, our, ours, me, us. 

62. Show by example how ''''we'' and '"'our'' are some- 
times used in the singular. 

We (the person writing) give this as our opinion. 

6j. What are the pronouns of the second person f 
Thou, ye, thy, thine, thee, you, your, yours. 

6/f. What of the use of these pronouns f 

The first five mentioned are no longer in common use. 
You is used in both nominative and objective cases, and 
as either singular or plural. Since you is properly a 
plural pronoun it takes a plural verb, even if but one 
person is addressed. 

65. What is the use of the pronouns of the third person ? 
Name them,. 

The pronouns of the third person distinguish not only 
number and case, but in the singular, gender also. They 
are he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they, theirs, them. 

66. What are the special uses of the pronoun it ? 

(1) This pronoun is sometimes used as the grammati- 
cal subject of a verb instead of the phrase or clause, 
which in this case follows the verb; as, It is true that he 
is blind. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 103 

(2) As the impersonal subject of the verb, it helps the 
verb to express an act or condition without reference to 
the actor; as, It will soon be night. 

(3) It may also be used as an impersonal or cognate 
object, following such verbs as are not really transitive; 
as, They are roughing it in a miner's camp. 

d/. When are the forms mine^ hers^ ours^ yours and 
theirs used? 

They are used when no noun follows them, but retain 
their possessive significance. 

68. What are compound personal pronouns ? 

Compound personal pronouns are those which are 
formed by adding .y^//" or i-^/z^^i- to many of the simple 
pronouns. 

6g. What are their uses ? 

They are used merely for emphasis; or they may be 
used in the predicate as a repetition of the subject. 
This latter is called the reflexive use; as. He injured 
himself hy his conduct. 

70. What are relative or conjunctive pronouns ? 

Pronouns which connect the clause in which they stand 
with some word which the clause modifies, are called 
-relative or conjunctive pronouns. 

yi. Na7ne the conjunctive pronouns. 
The conjunctive pronouns are who^ which^ what and 
that. 

y2. What are the differences between conjunctive and 
personal pronouns ? 

(1) Personal pronouns have different forms for each 
grammatical person, while the conjunctive pronouns do 
not change their form. 

(2) A personal pronoun may be the subject of an inde- 



I04 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

pendent sentence, but the conjunctive is always found in 
a dependent clause. 

7J. What are the two uses of a conjunctive pronoun ? 

Its pronominal use in representing a noun in any rela- 
tion, and its conjunctive use in joining a limiting clause 
to its antecedent. 

7^. What of the use of ^'who f " 

Who is used only in speaking of persons or personified 
objects. It has three case forms, who, whose, whom, and 
may be either singular or plural. Who is sometimes used 
with its antecedent omitted: Who steals my purse steals 
trash. 

75. How is '■^ which'' used? 

Which is applied to living creatures that are not per- 
sons, and to things. As it has only the nominative and 
objective cases, whose is often used as its possessive: A 
triangle whose sides are equal. 

'/6. Explain the meajting and use of ''Hhaf as a con- 
junctive pro7ioun. 

That is a general relative. It may be used when 
speaking of either persons or things, and must be used 
when its antecedent refers to both. That is preferred to 
who or which — 

(1) When introducing a restrictive clause: I saw the 
vessel that had been wrecked. 

(2) After an adjective in the superlative degree: 'Tis 
the finest flour that money can buy. 

(3) AitQV all, very, and same: I gave him all that I 
had. 

(4) To avoid the repetition of who: Who that hears me 
dare deny my statement ? 

That, as a conjunctive pronoun, cannot be preceded 
by a preposition but throws it at the end of the clause: 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 105 

The book that I told you of; not, The book of tJiat I told 
you. 

77. What is peculiar about the pronoun ^^whatf 
What has no antecedent expressed, but contains with- 
in itself both antecedent and relative. It is always 
neuter and is used only in the nominative and objective 
cases. It is equivalent to that which: What (that which) 
you say is true. 

yS. What other parts of speech are sometimes used as 
conjunctive pronouns? Give examples. 

The conjunctions, when following sucJi^ many and 
same and but used as a negative relative, equivalent to 
that not, 3.rQ classed as conjunctive pronouns: Such ^i" 
are worthy will be promoted. There is not a man here 
but knows it. 

The adverbs where, whence, how, wherewith, etc., are 
sometimes used in a pronominal sense, as if equivalent to 
what and which with a preposition: We visited the place 
where (in which) he lived. He had no money wherewith 
(with which) to buy bread. 

7p. How are compound conjunctive pronouns formed? 

Compound conjunctive pronouns are formed by annex- 
ing ever or soever to the simple conjunctive pronouns. 
They have no antecedent expressed, refer to no definite 
person or thing, but have the same connective force as 
the simple conjunctives: Whoever (he who) studies will 
learn. 

80. What are interrogative pronouns? Na^ne them. 
Interrogative pronouns are those used in asking ques- 
tions. Who, which, what, and whether. 

, Si. Explain the use of these pronouns. 

They are used in interrogative sentences and are 
usually placed very near the beginning of the sentence. 



io6 SEELE Y '5 QUESTION BOOK 

Who and its objective form whom, are the only forms 
likely to be misused. Who is always used as the subject, 
and whom as an object. Who is my neighbor ? Whom 
seek you here ? 

Whether is an old English form often found in the 
Bible. Whether is greater, the gift or the altar ? 

82. What are adjective pronouns ? 

Such adjectives as are used as pronouns are called 
adjective pronouns or pronominal adjectives. 

8j. Give classification and use of adjective pronouns. 

(1) Demonstrative pronouns this and these, referring 
to things near by ; that and those, to things more distant : 
This is the house where those men live. 

(2) Indefinite pronouns point out objects indefinitely. 
Each, either, and neither are always singular. One and 

its compounds, soinebody and the like, other and another, 
either and neither, have a possessive case. One and other 
have plurals. Some may be used in either a singular or 
plural sense. None is usually singular. Each praised 
the other, '''^h.ei's, sojnebody's mother, boys," he said. 
Some of the passengers were injured. None but the 
brave deserves the fair. 

S/f.. What are reciprocal pronouns ? 

Each other and one another imply reciprocal action and 
are classed as reciprocal pronouns: They helped each 
other. 

8j. What is an adjective ? 

An adjective is a word used to qualify the meaning of 
a noun or pronoun. 

86. What are the classes of adjectives ? 
(1) Descriptive adjectives, which denote quality. In 
this class are included the adjectives derived from a 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 107 

proper noun and called proper adjectives. The little girl 
has a Japanese doll. 

(2) Definitive adjectives, which denote quality, or 
point out a noun without describing it. This class 
includes the articles, numerals, and those adjectives 
which are used as pronouns: The lady bought two books 
for each of her children. 

8y. What are the classes of numerals ? 

(1) Cardinals, which tell how many ; one^ two^ thou- 
sand. 

(2) Ordinals, which tell position in a series; first ^ 
hundredth. 

88. What are the articles ? How used? 

A., used before words beginning with consonant 
sounds, and an^ used before words beginning with vowel 
sounds, are the indefinite articles. 

The is the definite article and is used to point out a 
particular object, to call attention to a proper noun, to 
indicate a whole class, and with an adjective, to form the 
equivalent of an abstract noun. 

8g. In what three ways may an adjective be joined to 
the word it modifies ? 

(1) By being placed directly before the word: The tall 
trees rock in the wind. 

(2) By being used as the complement of an incomplete 
verb: The trees were tall. 

(3) Following the noun: I remember the fir trees dark 
and high. 

go. What is comparison ? 

Comparison is the inflection of adjectives (and adverbs) 
to denote degrees of quality or quantity. 

gi. What are the degrees of comparison ? 



io8 



SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 



The positive, or simple root form. 

The comparative, which makes a comparison between 
two objects or sets of objects, or between two qualities of 
one object. 

The superlative, which is used in comparing three or 
more objects. 

g2. In what two ways are adjectives compared regularly ? 

By inflection and adverbially. Adjectives of one 
syllable, and those of two ending in le or y, are usually 
compared by adding er and est to the root form: j^ne, 
finer ^ finest', early^ earlier^ earliest. 

Most adjectives of two or more syllables are compared 
by the use of the adverbs more and most^ and less and 
least \ cheerful^ inore cheerful^ most cheerful] cheerful, 
less cheerful^ least cheerful. 

A few adjectives may be compared either by inflection 
or adverbially: 

completer, completest 

more coinplete, most complete 



complete 



pj. Give the most cojnmon of the adjectives which are 
compared irregularly. 



Positive 



Little, 

Good 
Well 



';} 



Many, 
Much, 

Bad, 
Evil, 
111, 

Late, 
Old, 



Comparative 
less, 

better, 
more. 



worse, 

j later, 
( latter 
J older, 
( elder, 



Superlative 
least. 

best, 
most. 

worst. 

j latest, 
( last, 
j oldest, 
I eldest. 



GRAMMAR AND COBIPOSITION 109 

p^. What adjectives are not compared? 

Most of the definitive adjectives, and such descriptives 
as have in themselves a superlative signification: ex- 
treme, perfect, right, wrong, supreme, eternal, dead, 
omnipotent. 

p5. What is a verb ? 

A verb is a word which tells, declares, or asserts some- 
thing. 

^6. How are verbs classified according to their use ? 
As transitive and intransitive verbs. 

p/. Define each class. 

A transitive verb is a verb expressing an action that is 
received by some person or thing: Isidivy gathers roses. 

An intransitive verb is a verb expressing being, or 
state, or action not received by any person or thing: The 
wind blows. 

g8. What determines whether a verb is transitive or 
intransitive ? 

As some verbs may be used both transitively and in- 
transitively, and as the meaning of many verbs is 
changed by the words which modify them, it is the use 
which must determine the classification of the verb as 
transitive or intransitive. 

pp. Give examples of verbs which are used both transi- 
tively and intransitively. 

Transitive — Intransitive — 

The hoy flies a kite. Birds y^. 

The cook turns the meat. The flower turns to the light. 

She tastes the apple. The apple tastes sweet. 

He laughed at me. He laughed heartily. 

The boys ran a race. The boys ran away. 

100. What is a complete verb? An incomplete verb? 



no SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

A complete verb is one that forms a predicate without 
help. 

An incomplete verb is one which requires the addition 
of one or more words to complete the predicate. 

loi. What is a complement ? 

A complement is that which must be added to a verb 
to complete the predicate. 

■ 102. Define copulative verb. 

All intransitive verbs that require a complement are 
classed as copulative verbs. 

/oj. What verbs are copulative. 

The verb be and all its forms; verbs of motion, posi- 
tion, and condition, as seem^ become^ f^^h taste ^ look^ 
sou?td^ appear; such passive forms as is called, is elected, 
is c J 10 sen, etc. 

104.. What is the complement of a transitive verb called? 
Of a copulative verb ? 

(1) The noun complement of a transitive verb is called 
the object complement, or the object. 

(2) The complement of a copulative verb, whether an 
adjective or a noun, is known as the predicate of the 
verb, or as an attribute of the subject. 

705. When is be a complete verb ? 

When it asserts existence: There is a river, the streams 
whereof make glad the city of God. 

106. What are attributive verbs ? 

Attributive verbs are those which contain in them- 
selves attributes of the subject. In this class are in- 
cluded all complete intransitive verbs and all transitive 
verbs. The equivalent of an attributive verb is a copula 
and attribute: The X2i\x\ falls. The rain is falling. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION m 

loy. How are verbs classed with respect to form ? De- 
fine each. 

As regular, or weak verbs, and irregular, or strong 
verbs. All verbs which form their past tense and per- 
fect participle by adding d or ed to the root, are called 
regular verbs. All others are irregular verbs. 

1 08. What are the principal parts of a verb ? 

The root, past tense and perfect participle are called 
the principal parts of the verb. 

log. What is a defective verb ? A redundant verb f 
A n impersonal verb ? 

A defective verb lacks some of its principal parts. 

A redundant verb has more than one form for the past 
tense or perfect participle. 

An impersonal verb has no determinate subject. It 
snows. 

no. What modifications have verbs ? 

Form or style, voice, mode, tense, person, and number. 

111. Name and give examples of the different forms of 
a verb. 

Common form: The wagon creaks along the dusty 
road. 

Passive form : The house was struck by lightning. 
Progressive form: The boys are playing h^XX. 
Emphatic form: The girls do work earnestly. 
Interrogative form : Will he be there ? 
Ancient form : Thou art our refuge. 

112. What are auxiliary verbs ? Name them. 
Auxiliary verbs are those which help in the inflection 

of the principal verbs. The auxiliaries are be^ do, have, 
shall, will, may, can, must. 

iij. What is tense? 



112 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

The forms of the verb that indicate the time to which 
the action or state is referred, are called tenses. 

11^. Name the divisions of the tenses. 

The primary tenses — present, past, and future — which 
denote indefinite or incomplete action. 

The perfect tenses — present, past, and future perfect 
— which denote completed action. 

775. What does the root and '"'■s'" form of the verb ex- 
press ? Illustrate. 

(1) Present time: Do you see him? 

(2) Indefinite time: The lark sings in the meadow. 

(3) Historical present: After conquering the prov- 
inces, Caesar returns to Rome. 

(4) As referring to the future: He enters Harvard 
next year. 

116. How is past time denoted? 

By the inflected form of the verb: I wrote a letter. 

777. How is future time expressed? 

By the use of the auxiliaries shall and will with the 
root form. 

118. How should shall and will be used? 

Shall in the first person, and will in the second and 
third, usually denote futurity. I shall go, if my mother 
will consent. 

Will in the first person, and shall in the second and 
third, denote determination or necessity. I will learn 
the language. He shall be punished for this. 

In asking questions, shall is used with /or %ve. With 
other subjects, use whichever auxiliary is expected in 
the answer? Shall wq sqq you. tonight? Will they re- 
turn to New York ? (They will.) 

iig. How are perfect tenses formed? 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 113 

Perfect tenses are formed by combining the perfect 
participle of a verb with the primary tense forms of the 

verb have. 

120. What is voice ? 

Voice is a form of the verb which shows whether its 
subject names the doer or the receiver of the action. 

T2I. Name, define, and illustrate the voices. 

A verb is in the active voice when its subject denotes 
the doer of the action: The servant lighted t^^ lamp. 

A verbis in the passive voice when the subject denotes 
the receiver of the action : The lamp ivas lighted by 
the servant. 

122. How is the passive voice formed? 
Passive voice is formed by joining some form of the 
verb be to the perfect participle of a transitive verb. 

I2J. How may a sentence be changed from active to 
passive voice ? 

By making the object in the active voice (the receiver 
of the action) the subject in the passive, and making the 
subject in the active (the doer of the action) the object 
of a preposition in the passive: A cat killed a rat; 
(active.) A rat was killed hy a cat; (passive.) 

124.. What of the voice of intransitive verbs ? 

All verbs are active voice, their subject naming the 
doer of the action. But as intransitive verbs have no ob- 
jects (receivers of the action) to become subjects in the 
passive, they cannot be changed to passive. A few in- 
transitive verbs have a passive form but not passive 
voice: The melancholy days are come. 
' Others which are followed by a preposition and its ob- 
ject assume passive form : The soldier dreamed of home, 
Home was dreamed of by the soldier. 



114 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

12^. What is mode ? 

Mode is the manner in which the action, being, or 
state of a verb is asserted. 

126. Define and illustrate the different modes. 

The indicative mode is used to make an assertion or 
ask a question : The sun shines. 

The subjunctive mode is sometimes used to express a 
doubt, a contingency, or a wish. This mode is gradually 
going out of use: If I be in the wrong, I will confess it. 

The imperative mode is used to express a command or 
entreaty: Lift up your heads, O ye gates! 

I2J. How may a verb in the subjunctive mode be dis- 
tinguished as such ? 

(1) By the use of //", though^ except^ etc. 

(2) By the peculiar use of be and were^ and of ttie root 
form of the verb: Though he slay me, yet will I trust 
him. Were he honest, we would employ him. 

128. How is the imperative mode distinguished? 
By the omission of the subject, or the use of the aux- 
iliaries do and be. 

12^. Explain use of may^ can^ etc. ? 

These are auxiliary verbs expressing possibility, per- 
mission, purpose, etc. When combined with the infini- 
tive they form potential verb phrases. These phrases 
are either subjunctive or indicative mode according to 
their meaning and use. You may go. (Indicative.) I 
fear he may lose it. (Subjunctive.) 

I JO. What is conjugation ? 

Conjugation is the orderly arrangement of the forms 
of a verb in the different modes and tenses. 

iji. What determines the person and number of a verb? 
The person and number of a verb is determined by the 
person and number of its subject. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 115 

1^2. Give a general rule for use of verbs. 
Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural sub- 
jects require plural verbs. 

7JJ. Give other instances where singular verbs are 
required. 

(1) When the subject is a singular collective noun 
denoting a group as a unit: The government has se- 
cured the Panama route. 

(2) When the subject is two or more singular nouns 
joined by and, yet denoting but one person or thing. "A 
laggard in love and a dastard in war was to wed the fair 
Ellen of brave Lochinvar." 

(3) When the subject is modified by each^ every^ 
many, a, etc. : Each man received a share. 

(4) When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are 
connected by eitJier — or^ or neither — nor: Either John or 
Tom goes for the mail. 

jj^. In what special cases are phiral verbs used? 

(1) When the subject is a collective noun referring to 
the individuals: The committee were invited, and all 
were present. 

(2) When the subject noun is modified by adjectives of 
different meaning: Slant and vertical writing are both 
taught. 

(3) When two or more subjects are joined by and: 
The horse and his rider zvere drowned. 

(4) When the subject is modified by a plural adjective: 
Several days were spent in the search. 

jjj. When several subjects of different persons are used 
how is the person of the verb determined? 

In such cases, the verb agrees with the subject nearest 
to it. Either you or I am to go. 

ij6. What is a participle? 



ii6 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

A participle is a word derived from a verb and par- 
taking of the nature of a verb, of a noun, or of an ad- 
jective. 

ijy. Name the participles and tell how formed. 

The imperfect participle is formed by adding ing to 
the root verb: Believing. 

The perfect participle is the inflected form of the verb: 
Believed. 

The compound participle is formed by combining 
beings havings or having been with the perfect participle: 
Having been believed. 

I J 8. How are participles used? 

They are used to modify nouns and as such are called 
verbal adjectives. 

jjp. What are verbal nouns f 

The imperfect participle is often used as a noun and 
is therefore called a verbal noun or the infinitive in ing. 
Seeing is believing. 

i/j-O. What is the difference between the verbal noun and 
the verbal adjective ? 

Verbal nouns may be modified by adjectives and ad- 
verbs, may govern the possessive case, may take an ob- 
ject, and may be used in the nominative or objective 
cases. 

Verbal adjectives admit adverbial modifiers and ob- 
jects, but have no case and can be used only as ad- 
jectives. 

7^7. What is the grammatical equivalent of this in- 
finitive ? 

The root infinitive, formed by the combination of the 
preposition to and the root verb. To read is pleasant. 
Reading is pleasant 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 117 

1^2. Give examples of the different uses of the root.^ in- 
finitive or infinitive phrase. 

(1) As a noun subject: To learji music requires pa- 
tience. 

(2) As a noun complement: All we want is to be set 
free. 

(3) As a noun object of a verb: Learn to labor and to 
wait. 

(4) As a noun object of a preposition: He is about to 
Join the army. 

(5) As a noun appositive: They had the good fortune 
to escape. 

(6) As an adjective: A desire to learuis commendable. 

(7) As an adverb : She was sorry to hear of your loss. 

i/f-j. What is an adverb ? 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective or another adverb. 

1^4.. Into what classes are adverbs divided according to 
their use ? 

(1) Simple adverbs, which modify the meaning of the 
word with which it is used: The rain i2X\^ gently. 

(2) Interrogative adverbs, used in asking questions: 
Where are the flowers, the fair, young flowers ? 

(3) Conjunctive adverbs, which perform at the same 
time, the oflice of an adverb and a subordinate conjunc- 
tion: The expedition will go to Greenland when naviga- 
tion opens. 

7^5. How are adverbs classed according to meaning? 
Give examples. 

Adverbs of place, (where?). F(!7;2<i'^r gleam the soldiers' 
lances. 

Adverbs of time, (when ?). The rain will soon be over. 

Adverbs of manner, (how?). Her fingers moved 
slowly over the keys. 



ii8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Adverbs of degree (how much, how little?). The 
letter came too late. 

Adverbs of cause, (why?). Wherefore, by their fruits 
ye shall know them. 

Modal adverbs, which show the manner of assertion or 
denial: Possibly it is true. 

Adverbs of time include adverbs of number and order: 
Thrice he called. We hold, first, that such is our right. 

1^6. Are adverbs compared? 

Most adverbs of manner and degree and a few others, 
admit of comparison. They are compared like adjectives. 

7^7. What is a preposition f 

A preposition is a word used to connect other words 
and to show the relation between them. 

14.8. What may the object of a preposition be ? Illustrate. 
A noun or pronoun: There is a message in that letter 
ior you. 

An adverb: I never knew it until 7tow. 
An adjective: Look on high. 
An infinitive: He delights in fishing. 
A phrase : Wait until after supper. 
A clause : Listen to what he says. 

1/j.g. What does a preposition and its object form ? 
A prepositional phrase. 

750. How are such phrases used? 

As an adjective modifier: The leader of the band is a 
good cornetist. 

As an adverb: There was mounting in hot haste. 

As an adjective complement: The book is of 710 value 
to me. 

757. What is a coinplex preposition ? 
Two prepositions combined and used as one are called 
a complex preposition. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 119 

1^2. What is a conjunction ? 

A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences or 
parts of sentences. 

'^53' Nanie^ define^ and illustrate the two classes of 
conjunctions. 

Coordinate conjunctions connect terms of equal rank: 
He walked up and ^owr\. the path. 

Correlative conjunctions are coordinate conjunctions 
used in pairs : both and, either or, neither nor, whether or, 
not only, but also. 

Subordinate conjunctions connect terms of unequal 
rank: Ifl were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 

75^. What is a clause ? 

A group of words having a subject and predicate, but 
used as a part of speech, is a clause. 

755. In what three ways may subordinate clauses be con- 
nected with their principals ? 

(1) By surbordinate conjunctions: Ye shall not eat of 
it, lest ye die. 

(2) By conjunctive pronouns: He whose tongue is 
loudest thinks the least. 

(3) By conjunctive adverbs: I do not know where you 
live. 

1^6. As what parts of speech may clauses be used? 

As adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. Clauses connected 
by conjunctive pronouns are adjective modifiers; those 
connected by conjunctive adverbs or subordinate con- 
junctions are adverbial modifiers. 

757. How may noun clauses be used? 

(1) As subject: Whether you go or stay does not 
matter. 

(2) As predicate complement: The order was that we 
should report at once. 



120 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

(3) As object of a verb: He showed me where they 
lived. 

(4) As object of a preposition: We stayed until mother 
called us. 

(5) As an appositivre: The president made proclama- 
tion that the slaves should be free. 

1^8. What is an interjection ? 

An interjection is an exclamatory word used to express 
strong feeling. It has no grammatical connection with 
the rest of the sentence. 

75p. According to their form ^ how are sentences classed? 
As simple, compound, and complex sentences. 

i6o. Define each. 

A simple sentence contains but one statement or 
question. 

A compound sentence consists of two or more inde- 
pendent propositions joined by coordinate conjunctions. 

A complex sentence consists of an independent propo- 
sition and one or more dependent propositions. 

i6i. What should be the order of analyzing any 
sentence ? 

(1) Arrange sentence in natural order. 

(2) Kind of sentence, as form and meaning. 

(3) Complete subject and predicate. 

(4) Simple subject and predicate. 

(5) Clauses (if any), kind and what they modify. 

(6) Phrases (if any), kind and what they modify. 

(7) Words, clauses, and what they modify. 

162. What is parsing? 

Classifying words as parts of speech and naming their 
relations to other words, is parsijig. 

i6j. What should be the order of parsing f 



GRAMMAR AND COBIPOSITION 121 

(1) Name the word and classify as a part of speech. 

(2) Give its inflections and properties. 

(3) Tell its relation to the rest of the sentence, giving 
reasons for this relation. 

161J.. What determines the classification of words into 
parts of speech ? 

This classification is largely determined by the use of 
the word in a given sentence, 

A list of the most common words which admit of 
varied uses is given. 

Above — (1) The mountains are above the clouds (prep. ) 
(2) Sweet sounds came from above (noun). (3) The 
lark soars above (adv.). 

Alike — (1) Their dresses are alike (adj.). (2) Treat 
them all alike (adv.). 

All~{l) All that thou seest is mine (adj. pro.) (2) All 
men are born equal(adj.). Your work is all wrong (adv.). 

As — (1) Do as you are bidden (conj. adv.). (2) He 
knows as (adv.) well as (conj.) I do. (3) Give me such 
as you have (conj. pro.). (4) He is known as a scholar 
(prep.). 

Both — ■(!) Both received a talent (adj. pro). (2) Both 
he and I are going (cor. conj.). (3) He sold both horses 
(adj.). 

But—{\) He is but a child (adj.). (2) All but him had 
fled (prep.). (3) He is not ill, but tired (conj.). (4) We 
can but try (adv.). 

Down — (1) The pillow is made of down (noun). (2) 
We ran down the hill (prep.). (3) He will down his an- 
tagonist (verb). (4) The sun is down (adv). (5) The 
down train is due (adj.). 

Else — (1) What else can I do? (adj. pro. ). (2) Did you 
ask any one else? (adj.). (3) How else can I send it? 
(adv.). (4) Thou desireth not sacrifice, else would I give 
(conj.). 



122 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Even — (1) Six is an even number (adj.). (2) The 
measure was even full (adv.)- (3) Even the measures of 
meal alike (verb). (4) And I even I alone am left (conj.). 
(5) At even it shall be light (noun). 

Fast — (1) He drives a fast horse (adj.). (2) Thick and 
fast fell the blows (adv.). (3) The man has broken his 
long fast (noun). (4) They fast every week (verb). 

Piill.-{\) We launched the boat at full of tide (noun). 
(2) He was greeted by a full house (adj.). (3) They full 
cloth at the mill (verb). (4) He knew full well my mean- 
ing (adv.). 

/// — ^(1) It is an ill wind (adj.). (2) May you suffer no 
ill (noun). (3) He is ill able to bear the loss (adv.). 

Ltke—O^) I shall not look upon his like again (noun). 
(2) Like a dog he hunts in dreams(adv.). (3) Like causes 
must end in like effects (adj.). (4) They like their home 
(verb). 

Much — (1) Much was expected of him (adj.). (2) He 
talks too much (adv.). (3) Much learning hath made 
thee mad (adj.). 

More — (1) Some earned more, some less (adj. pro.). 
(2) I need more paper (adj.). (3) This cloth is more 
durable than that (adv.). 

No — (1) Do not say no (noun). (2) I can wait no 
longer (adv.). (3) He had no home (adj.). 

Now — (1) Now is the accepted time (noun.). (2) I 
saw him just now (adv.). (3) Now, this man knew noth- 
ing about the work (conj.). 

Only — (1) He works only in the morning (adv.). (2) 
She is an only child (adv.). (3) It is the right kind only 
it is too small. 

Right-^{1) Holdup your right hand (adj.). (2) The 
right shall be the right while time endures (noun). (3) 
We traveled right on (adv.). (4) They should right that 
wrong at once (verb). 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 123 

Save — (1) He will save his money (verb). (2) I have 
no friend save you (conj.)- 

Since — (1) She has improved since she came here (conj. 
adv.). (2) Since you have read the book, you may return 
it (conj.). (3) He left some weeks since (adv.). (4) 
Since that time, I have had no message (prep.). 

Still— {1) The house still stands (adv.). (2) He lead- 
eth me beside the still waters (adj.). (3) It is old, still it 
is beautiful (conj.) (4) He stills the tempest (verb). (5) 
We heard his voice in the still of night (noun). 

That—(\) That man is old (adj.). (2) That is my 
home (adj. pro.) (3) He told me that the mill was 
closed (conj.) (4) This is the house that Jack built (conj. 
pro.). 

There — (1) Who comes there? (adv.). (2) There is no 
dew left on the clover (expletive). 

Up — (1) We walked up the hill (prep.). (2) He came 
from the up-country (adj.). (3) They had many ups and 
downs (noun). (4) The price of coal has gone up (adv.). 

Well—iV) The well is deep (noun). (2) Gratitude 
wells in his heart (verb). (3) The work was well done 
(adv.). (4) She is quite well (adj.). 

What—iX) What city is this? (int. adj.). (2) What 
shall I wish thee ? (int. pro.). (3) I know what you will 
say (conj. pro.). (4) I know what master laid thy keel 
(adj.). (5) What! do you doubt me? (interjection). (6) 
What with entreaty, what with threatening, I succeeded 
(adv.). 

Whe7i — (1) Since when did it happen? (noun). (2) 
When did you come? (int. adv.). (3) I visited the li- 
brary when I was in'Boston (conj. adv.). 

Which— {V) Which is the house? (int. pro.). (2) Which 
house is yours? (int. adj.). (3) I know the house which 
you mean (conj. pro.). (4) Which is a conjunctive pro-^ 
noun (noun). 



124 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

While — (1) The medicine relieved him for a while 
(noun). (2) They while away many pleasant hours 
(verb). (3) We shall call on you while we are in the 
city (conj, adv.). (4) He is cautious while his partner is 
rash (conj.). 

Worth — (1) We knew not his worth (noun). (2) He is 
worth a million (adj.). 

Yet — (1) One way yet remains (adv.). (2) I am dis- 
couraged, yet not cast down (conj.). 



CHAPTER VI. 
ARITHMETIC. 

T is doubtless the general belief among the Amer- 
ican people that the most necessary and practical 
subject taught in the schools is arithmetic. It will 
be easy to show the fallacy of this idea if we stop a 
moment to think how much we employ reading, writing, 
language, and history in the affairs of life, and how little 
v/e really employ arithmetic. Nevertheless, the idea 
prevails and this will account for the willingness of most 
children to study arithmetic, and the desire on the part 
of parents that this subject shall have a most prominent 
place in school work. This has led some schools to 
devote fully one-third of the time to it. I knew one 
school that had exercises in written arithmetic in the 
forenoon and mental arithmetic in the afternoon in all 
the classes. It will be seen at once that the many other 
subjects demanding a hearing had to be neglected in 
that school. 

From a practical standpoint the average person needs 
but little arithmetic. He needs to know how to add, 
subtract, multiply, and divide, a knowledge of fractions, 
compound numbers, and decimals, and how to apply 
decimals in percentage, computing interest, etc. A 
great deal found in our arithmetics might well be elimi- 
nated if one considers what is needed in life except for 
special callings, such as, accountants, bankers, insurance 
calculators, engineers. Even in these cases somehow 
the school course does not render much aid, for tables, 
formulas, and other "short-cuts" have been devised 



126 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

which are very different from anything taught in the 
schools. Preparation for such special callings belongs to 
special schools and is not a part of the common school 
work. Viewed from the standpoint of practicability too 
much time is given in our schools to arithmetic. If 
many useless subjects were eliminated, such as, complex 
fractions, compound proportion, equation of payments, 
partnership, cube root, etc., all of the necessary work in 
arithmetic could be accomplished in six years, whereas, 
we now require fully eight.* German schools succeed 
in bringing their pupils to a thorough mastery of this 
subject in six years without even requiring daily recita- 
tions during the whole of this time. This enables them 
to devote the last two years to elementary algebra, and 
constructive geometry, with perhaps an hour or two each 
week for advanced arithmetic. 

I have spoken thus far of the practical value of 
arithmetic. It has a peculiar disciplinary value. It 
gives clearness, logical power, accuracy, mental alert- 
ness. Nothing can take its place in the curriculum 
either from the practical or the disciplinary standpoint. 
It was formerly believed to be the only subject possess- 
ing disciplinary possibilities. But it has been found that 
other subjects, properly taught, also train to reason, to 
judge, to think. Hence arithmetic cannot hold its place 
on this ground to the exclusion of the others. If daily 
lessons in arithmetic are given for six years, the subject 
should be sufficiently mastered so that not more than 
two periods a week would be necessary to keep the sub- 
ject fresh in the minds of the pupils. This would per- 
mit the introduction of algebra and constructive geome- 
try as mathematical work during the last two years. 

There are two chief ends to be sought in teaching 
arithmetic, namely, facility and accuracy. Children 

*See address of Dr. Frank M. McMurry given at the Meeting of the Depart- 
ment of Superintendence, Atlanta, 1504. 



ARITHMETIC 127 

must learn to do rapid work. They must know their 
tables so thoroughly that when applying them the result 
will be obtained instantaneously. Teachers are often ■ 
troubled by pupils counting on their fingers. This is 
a sure sign that the tables have not been thoroughly 
mastered. No child will ever stop to count on his 
fingers if he knows the result without that aid. Hence 
the remedy is further drill on the tables. Then, too, 
the work must be accurate. There is a moral as well as 
an intellectual lesson inculcated in this. Loose intellec- 
tual habits lead naturally and easily to slovenly moral 
habits. Something more than method must be consid- 
ered. It would be a poor excuse for a book-keeper who 
reaches incorrect totals to say, "My method of adding 
is correct even if the result is wrong." 

Both oral and written work must be employed. It has 
been said, "The ability to perceive principles in prob- 
lems orally stated, to carry them through a course of 
reasoning, and to apply them in the solution of prob- 
lems, is of greatest importance in disciplining and. 
strengthening the mind. Hence, no system of arithmetic 
can be complete which does not combine oral with writ- 
ten exercises." There seems to be a tendency to return 
to the use of mental arithmetic, certainly not to the 
extent that it was employed a generation ago, but in 
connection with written arithmetic as a means of logical 
discipline. Great care should be taken to have all writ- 
ten work neat and methodical in its arrangement, thus 
tending to form good habits. 

In the selection of material in arithmetic there is a 
splendid opportunity to make use of the environment. 
Suppose, for instance, a house is building in the vicinity. 
Let the pupils measure its dimensions and calculate its- 
cost from cellar to roof. Excavation of the cellar and 
erection of the walls would illustrate cubic measure; the 



128 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

surface of the interior and exterior in siding, roofing, 
plastering, papering, painting, etc., would furnish exam- 
ples in square measure; linear measure would be in con- 
stant use; the estimates of cost of materials, labor, 
supervision, etc., would make many practical examples. 
About all of practical arithmetic would find illustration 
in such an enterprise. It would be a live, real subject, 
full of interest and utility, which would last for days and 
would yield results of far greater value than anything 
contained in the books. Problems connected with 
every day life, on the farm, in the store, or shop, or 
factory can easily be originated by both pupils and 
teacher, serving to make arithmetic a vital and valuable 
school subject. Teachers should not hesitate to consult 
with men in practical life and thus find out actual bus- 
iness methods in arithmetic. Nor should they fail to 
employ such methods as commend themselves even if 
"the book does not say so." Such a practice as this 
would command respect among the patrons of the school, 
who often look with too much indulgence upon the fads 
and foolish methods so many teachers persist in follow- 
ing. 

If many of the useless subjects that are found in 
arithmetics were eliminated time would be found for 
beginning algebra. There are many things in elemen- 
tary algebra that are quite within the comprehension of 
children from twelve to fourteen years of age, such as, 
the known and unknown quantity, the force oi signs, 
factoring, simple equations, etc. vSquare or cube root in 
arithmetic are difficult to understand. Solved by 
algebraic formula they become very simple. Even a 
simple knowledge of algebra will greatly aid in solving 
problems out in arithmetic. For these reasons, in the 
questions and answers that follow, algebra also will be 
represented. 



ARITHMETIC 129 

Questions and Answers. 

1. Define arithmetic. 

Arithmetic is the science and art of numbers. As a 
science it treats of the properties, relations and principles 
of numbers; as an art, it treats of numerical computa- 
tion. 

2. Upon what is arithmetic founded^ and what are its 
fundamental processes ? 

Arithmetic is founded upon a system of decimal nota- 
tion, and its processes are addition, subtraction, multi- 
plication, and division. 

J. What is a unit? 

A unit is a single thing of any kind. 

^. What is a number ? 

A number is one or more units. 

5. Name and define classes of numbers. 

A concrete number is applied to some particular thing. 
An abstract number is used without reference to any 
particular thing. 

6. What is a rule ? A problem, ? 

A rule is a prescribed method of performing an opera- 
tion. 

A problem is a question proposed for solution. 

7. What is notation ? 

Notation explains the method of expressing numbers 
by means of symbols or figures. 

8. What is numeration ? 

Numeration is the art of reading numbers. 

g. What is the order of a figure ? 



130 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The order of a figure is the place it occupies in a 
number. 

10. Wha,t are the principks of Arabic notation ? 

Its numbers are expressed by ten characters, or digits. 
These characters are placed in orders which increase in 
value from right to left, tenfold. The orders are divided 
into groups of threes, and each group is designated as a 
period. 

11. What is the difference between the simple and the 
local value of a figure. 

The simple value of a figure is its value when stand- 
ing alone; the local value depends upon the order it 
occupies. 

12. What are the signs used in arithmetic ? 

Plus ( + ), the sign of addition. Minus (— ), the sign 
of subtraction. The sign of multiplication (X), which 

is read "times." The signs of division, (-^-), (| )\ 

Vv^hichare read "divided by." The sign of equality, (=), 
which is read "equals" or "equal to." The signs of 
aggregation, parenthesis, ( ); vinculum, ; bracket, 
[ ] ; and the brace, \ \ . These signsshow that the 
quantities included in them are to be subjected to the 
same process. 

jj. What are the principles of addition ? 

Only like numbers can be added. Only like orders can 
be added. When the sum of an order exceeds nine, the 
tens are units of the next higher order. The sum is the 
same in whatever order the numbers are added. 

7^. What are the terms used in subtractiofiy and what 
principles are involved ? 

The minuend, the number from which another is to be 
subtracted; the subtrahend, the number to be sub- 
tracted; the remainder or difference, the result obtained. 



ARITHMETIC 131 

Only like numbers can be subtracted. When the num- 
ber in any order in the minuend is less than the one in 
the subtrahend, a unit may be taken from the next 
higher order in the minuend and added as tens to the 
deficient order. The sum of the remainder and subtra- 
hend is equal to the minuend. 

75. What are the terms of multiplication ? 

Multiplicand, the number to be multiplied; multiplier, 
the number by which we multiply; product, the result. 
The first two are called factors of the product. 

16. What are the principles of multiplication ? 

The multiplier must be an abstract number. The 
multiplicand and product must be like numbers. The 
product divided by one term will give the other. 

77. What are the terms of division ? 

Dividend, the number to be divided; divisor, the num- 
ber by which we divide; quotient, the result of the 
division. 

7c?. What are the principles of division? 

The dividend and divisor are like numbers, and the 
quotient must be an abstract number. 

The product of the divisor and quotient, plus the re- 
mainder, is equal to the dividend. A change in either 
divisor or dividend produces a change in the quotient. 

ig. What of the value of these four fundamental 
principles ? 

Upon these principles and their laws are based all the 
processes in arithmetic. Many special terms are used in 
different subjects, but the processes of combination are 
the same as those involved in these four principles. 

20. What is a prime number? A composite number ? 



132 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

A number that has no divisor except itself and one is 
a prime number. 

A composite number is one which is made from the 
product of two or more factors. 

21. What is factoring? 

Factoring is the process of resolving numbers into fac- 
tors or parts. 

22. What is the greatest common divisor ? 

The greatest common divisor is the greatest number 
that will divide two or more numbers without a re- 
mainder. 

2^. What use is made of the G. C. D. ? 

It is used in reducing fractions to their lowest terms. 

24.. What is the least com^mon m,ultiple f 
It is the least number that will exactly contain two or 
more given numbers. 

25. When is it used? 

L. C. M. is used in reducing fractions of different 
denominators to a least common denominator, in order 
that they may be added or subtracted. 

26. What is an integer ? 

An integer is a whole number. 

2j. What is a fraction ? 

A fraction is one or more of the equal parts of a unit. 

28. What are the parts of a fraction ? 

The denominator, which shows into how many parts 
the unit is divided. 

The numerator, which shows how many of these parts 
are taken. 

The line ( — ) which separates the two terms of the 
fraction and which is really a division sign. 



ARITHMETIC 133 

2(^. What is a common fraction ? 

A common fraction is one whose denominator may be 
any number. 

JO. Upon what does the value of a fraction depend? 
How inay this value be changed? 

The value of a fraction depends upon the relative 
values of its numerator and denominator. 

Any change in either term of the fraction changes the 
value of a fraction. 

J7 Define proper fraction^ improper fraction^ m,ixed 
number^ reciprocal. 

A proper fraction is one whose value is less than one. 

An improper fraction is one whose value is greater 
than one. 

A mixed number is a whole number and a fraction. 

The reciprocal of a number is the quotient of 1 divided 
by that number. 

J2. Under what conditions inay common fractions be 
added or subtracted. 

Fractions must have a common denominator before 
they can be added or subtracted. As the denominator is 
really but a name, only the numerators are added or sub- 
tracted. 

jj. How are fractions multiplied? 

By eliminating corresponding factors in numerators 
and denominators and multiplying together remaining 
terms in each. 

j^. Why do we invert the divisor in division of fractions ? 

For convenience. The result is the same as if both 
fractions were reduced to L. C. D. and the numerators 
divided. By inverting the divisor, the process of reduc- 
tion is omitted and the work shortened. 

J5. What is a decimal fraction ? 



134 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

A fraction whose denominator is ten or any number of 
tens multiplied together is a decimal fraction. 

j6. How are zvritten decimals designated? 
By a decimal point placed before the order of tenths to 
designate the decimal orders. 

J/. What principles are involved in decimals ? 

The value of a decimal decreases from left to right. 
The name of a decimal is the same as the name of its 
right hand order. 

The denominator of a decimal, when expressed, is one 
with as many ciphers annexed as there are decimal 
places. 

J 8. How are decimals added and subtracted? 
The process in addition and subtraction of decimals is 
the same as in like operations with integers. 

jp. How are decimals multiplied? 

The figures are multiplied as in whole numbers, and as 
man}^ decimal places pointed off in the product as there 
are decimal places in both multiplicand and multiplier. 
x^Xyo^^^to^o" ^^ .3X-5=.15. 

^o. How are decimals divided? 

The numbers are divided as in whole numbers. As 
many places are pointed off from the right of the quo- 
tient as the number of places in the dividend exceed the 
number in the divisor. 2.75-4-2.5=1.1. 

^/. How is a co'tnmon fraction reduced to a decimal ? 

A common fraction is an indicated division. Place a 
decimal point after the figure in the numerator, annex 
decimal ciphers and perform the operation indicated, 
according to the laws of division of decimals. 

Note.— For a review of Denominate Numbers and the Metric System, the 
student i& referred to any standai-d arithmetic, where the tables may be learned. 
The processes involved in these numbers are the fundamental principles of 
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. 



ARITHMETIC 135 

/J.2. What is meant by per cent ? 

The term per cent means so many hundredths. 

^j. How is per cent indicated? 

By the per cent sign (%) ; as a decimal; or as a frac- 
tional part of 100. 

/j.^. What is percentage ? 

Percentage embraces the various operations with per 
cent. 

^5. How many and what gtiantities are considered in 
percentage ? 

There are three quantities considered, — the entire 
amount or the whole quantity, the number of hun- 
dredths or the per cent to be taken, and the part or per- 
centage taken. 

4.6. What is the relation of these parts to each other ? 

These different parts have different names in the var- 
ious applications of percentage, but their relations are 
always the same. If this be remembered many of the 
difficulties will be removed. The principles in the fol- 
lowing simple operations are obvious. 

6X2=12, or, 6X2=(?). 
6X(?)=12, or, 12-^6-=(?). 
(?)X2or, 12-^2=(?). 

These same principles apply in operations in percent- 
age. 

The wholeX%— part, or, the wholeX %=(?). 
The whole X(?)=part, or, part-Hthe whole=(?). 
(?)X%=part, or, part ^%=(?). 

^7. Name the various subjects which are considered 
under percentage. 

Those without the element of time, are Commission, 
Trade Discount, Profit and Loss, Brokerage, Assess- 



136 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

ments and Dividends, Stock Values and Investments, 
Taxes, Insurance. 

Those with the element of time are Interest and Dis- 
count. 

^8. What is wholesale price ? Retail price ? 

Wholesale price is the price of merchandise in 
quantities. 

Retail price is the price of small amounts of merchai 
dise. 

^p. Name and define the terms used in commission. 

An agent, factor, or commission merchant is one who 
buys and sells goods for another. 

The commission is the money paid the agent for his 
work. 

The charges are the expenses incurred by the agent. 

The net proceeds is the sum remaining after commis- 
sion and charges are paid. 

The goods sent are called a co7tsignment^ the person 
who sends them, the consignor^ the person who receives 
them, the consignee. 

50. What is Trade or Commercial Discount^ and what 
are its terms ? 

Commercial discount is a deduction from the list price 
of goods. 

The list, or asking price, is the price from which dis- 
counts are allowed. 

The discounts are the deductions from the list price. 
There may be one or more successive discounts, and 
they are expressed as so many percent off or so many off. 

The net price is the price paid, or the cost price. 

57. What are the terms of Profit and Loss ? 

The cost price, or what is paid for goods. 

The selling price, or what is received for goods. 



ARITHMETIC 137 

The profit or gain, or what is made on the goods. The 
loss. 

^2. What are Stock Transactions ? 

Stock Transactions relate to the purchase and sale of 
stocks, bonds, and gold. 

5j. Define stocky stock holders^ bonds ^ par value ^ com- 
pany^ corporation. 

Stock is capital in the form of marketable shares. 

Stockholders are persons who own stock. 

A bond is a written promise, under seal, to pay a cer- 
tain sum of money at a specified time. 

The original or face value of a share is its par value. 

A company is an association of persons for the transac- 
tion of business. 

When a company is organized and regulated by law it 
is an incorporated company or a corporation. 

5^. Give meaning of the terms ^ broker^ brokerage^ as- 
sessment^ dividend^ ^'' at premium^'" ''''below par ^'^ income. 

A broker is an agent who buys and sells stocks, etc., 
and the sum which he receives for transacting such busi- 
ness is called brokerage. 

An assessment is a sum of money paid by the stock- 
holders, while a dividend is money paid to the stock- 
holders. 

Stock is "at premium" when it sells for more than its 
par value; it is "below par," or at a discount when 
it sells for less than its par value. 

Income is the annual profit from invested capital. 

55. Show how the terms of the various subjects in mer- 
caiitile and stock transactions^ correspond to the three 
quantiti^es considered in percentage. 

The entire amount or whole quantity is the same as: 
Amount of sale, in Commission. 



138 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

List price, in Trade Discount. 

Cost price, in Profit and Loss. 

Par value, in Brokerage, Assessments, Stock Values 
and Investments. 

Valuation, in Taxes. 

Amount insured in Insurance. 
The number of hundredths or the percent to be taken 
is the same as: 

Rate of commission, rate of discount, per cent of 
gain or loss, rate of brokerage, per cent of assess- 
ment or dividend, percent of income, rate of pre- 
mium, rate of taxation. 
The part taken or the percentage is the same as: 

The commission, brokerage, assessment, dividend, 
income, premium, tax. 

56. What is interest ? 

Interest is money paid for the use of money. 

57. What are the terms considered in interest ? 

Principal, the sum of money loaned; time, the period 
for which the money was loaned; rate per cent; interest; 
amount, the sum of the principal and interest. 

5<?. What is a promissory note ? 

A promissory note is a written agreement by one 
party to pay to another a specified sum of money at a 
specified time. 

5p. Define simple and annual interest. 
Simple interest is interest on the principal only. 
Annual interest is interest on the principal and on 
each annual interest after it is due. 

60. Define bank discount and its terms. 

Bank discount is simple interest paid in advance. 

The proceeds is the money received on the note. 



ARITHMETIC 139 

In a few states three "days of grace'* after the specified 
time are allowed for the payment of a note. 

61. Define exchange and its terms. 

Exchange is a process of making payments at distant 
places by remitting drafts instead of money. 

A draft, or bill of exchange, is a written order from 
one person to another for a certain sum of money. 

Exchange is at "premium" or "discount" when the 
cost of the draft is above or below par. The rate of 
difference is the "rate of exchange." 

62. Define ratio and name its terms. 

The relation of one number to another of the same 
kind is ratio. The numbers compared are the terms of 
the ratio. The first term is the antecedent, the second 
the consequent, both together forming a couplet. ^ (ante- 
cedent) : 12 (consequent). 

6j. What is proportion ? Give its terms and principles. 

Proportion is an equality of ratios. The double colon 
( :: ) is the sign of proportion. The first and last terms 
are the extremes, the second and third, are the means. 
The product of the extremes equals the product of the 
means. The product of either set of terms divided by 
the other term, will give the missing term. 6 : ( ?) : : 8 : 9= 

6^. Define power., root, involution, evolution. 

The power of a number is the product obtained by 
taking the number one or more times as factor. 

The root of a number is one of its factors. 

Involution is the process of finding the powers of 
numbers. 

Evolution is the process of finding the root of numbers. 

6^. Define exponent, index, radical sign, surd. 



I40 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

An exponent is the figure which denotes the power to 
which the number is to be raised. 

Index is the number placed above the radical sign to 
show the number of the root. 

The radical sign (]/) placed before a number shows 
that its root is to be extracted. 

A surd is the root of a number whose factors are not 
equal. 

66. How may you raise any number composed of units 
and tens to the second power ? 

The square of the tens, plus twice the product of the 
tens by the units, plus the square of the units, will give 
the second power of any number less than 100.^;' 

6j. How may the cube of a number consisting of units 
and tens be found f 

The cube of the tens, plus three times the product of 
the square of the tens by the units, plus three times the 
product of the tens by the square of the units, plus the 
cube of the units, will give the cube of any number less 
than 100. 

68. What is the square root of a number ? 

One of the two equal factors which produce that 
number. 

6g. What is the cube root of a number ? 
One of the three equal factors which produce that 
number. 

yo. What are the three divisions of numeration ? 
The measurement of lines, areas and solids. 

7/. Upon what principle is the side of a right triangle 
found? 

The square described on the hypotenuse of a right 

Note.— Operations iu square and cube root will be eisier understood by alge- 
braic formulas. If Algebra is included in the course, it would be better to defer 
the work till then. 



ARITHMETIC 141 

triangle is equal to the sum of the squares described on 
the other two sides. 302+402=^^^^=50 hypotenuse. 

"J 2. How is the circuinference of a circle found? The 
diameter f 

By multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. By dividing 
the circumference by 3.1416. 

yj. How do you find the area of a square or a parallel- 
ogram ? 

Multiply the base by the altitude. 

7^. How find the area of triangles ? 

Multiply the base by the altitude and take half the 
product. Or when the length of the sides is given : 

From half the sum of the three sides take each side 
separately. Multiply the remainders and half sum to- 
gether and extract the square root. 

75. How find area of a trapezoid? Of any polygon ? 

Multiply half the sum of the parallel sides by the 
altitude. 

Divide the polygon into triangles, and find the sum of 
their areas. 

y6. How find the area of a circle when the radius is 
given ? 

Multiply the square of the radius by 3.1416. Re- 
verse the operation when the area of the circle is given 
to find the radius. 

77. How do you find the convex surfaces of cubes^ 
prisms^ cylinders^ cojies^ pyramids ? 

Consider their surfaces as flat surface forms and use 
the rules which apply to the measurement of such 
surfaces. 

y8. How do you find the volume of a prison or cylinder ? 



142 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Multiply the area of the base by the altitude. 

yg. How is the volume of a cone or pyramid found? 

Multiply the area of the base by one-third of the 
altitude. 

80. H hat rules apply to the sphere ? 

To find the surface of a sphere multiply the square of 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the solid contents, multiply the cube of the 
diameter by one-sixth of 3.1416, or .5236. 

81. What principle applies to tJie relation of surfaces to 
each other ? What one to the relation of solids ? 

Similar surfaces are to each other as the squares of 
their like dimensions. 

Similar solids are to each other as the cubes of their 
like dimensions. 

82. How is lumber measured f 

Multiply the area of the board in square feet by the 
number of inches in thickness, to find the number of 
board feet. 

8j. How many cubic feet in a stone -mason's perch f Li 
a cordf 

A mason's perch is 24.75 cubic feet. A cord contains 
128 cubic feet. 

8/j.. What is the measurement in cubic inches of a gallon ? 
Of a busJiel? 

A gallon contains 231 cubic inches. A bushel contains 
2150.4 cubic inches. 

8^. How are shingles and lath estimated? 

Allowing for waste, 1000 shingles are supposed to cover 
100 sq. ft. called a square. 

A bunch of lath is estimated to cover five square yards 
of surface. 



ARITHMETIC 143 

Problems. 

1. Sold 475 bu. of corn, which was 20% of what I had 
remaining, what percent of the entire quantity did I sell ? 

Ans, 16^%. 

2. Owning ^ly^^o of a farm, I sold 56% of my share 
for $6,664. Find value of the farm, and the percent 
remaining? 

Ans. $13,600, value of farm: 51%, remaining. 

3. What number plus |-% of itself equals 4^% of 
3000? Ans. 125. 

4. I receive goods to sell on a commission of 2%io\ I 
sell through a broker who charges ^^; my own com- 
mission after paying brokerage is $107.03. What was 
the amount of sale, and the consignee's proceeds? 

Ans. $6,116, amount of sale; $5,978.39, proceeds. 

5. Sold flour for $984, on a commission of 4^. 
Invested the net proceeds in wheat, reserving Zy^ie for 
buying. Find entire commission. Ans. $62.40. 

6. Sold cotton, at 5^ commission; invested the net 
proceeds in sugar at 2^ commission. If my entire com- 
mission was $210, what was the value of the cotton and 
sugar? Ans. $3,060 cotton, $2,850 sugar. 

7. A man realized $6,229.40 on the sale of a house, 
after paying an agent's commission of 3^, and charges 
amounting to $75.60. What was the price received for 
the house? Ans. $6,500. 

8. An attorney collected a claim of $3,250 and sent the 
owner $3,168.75. What was his rate of commission? 

Ans. zy^io. 

9. An agent sold a cargo of grain for $4,760, at 1^^ 
commission; the freight was $87.50. What sum did the 
owner receive ? Ans. $4,613. 



144 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

10. A wholesale grocer sold a lot of flour invoiced at 
$2,250, at i, 12 and 5^ off. What did he receive for the 
goods? (Find net price of $1 and multiply list price by 
that). Ans, $1,567.50. 

11. The cost of a bill of books was $2,244, which was 
a reduction of \, 15, and 12^ off. What was the list 
price? Ans. |3,750. 

12. A buyer was offered goods at 10, 10 and 20^ off, 
or at 40^ off. The marked price of the bill was $2,700. 
Which was the better proposition for the buyer, and how 
much? Ans. The latter, by $129.60. 

13. Sold goods at ^, \ and \ off and the discounts 
amounted to $375. What was the list price? Ans. $750. 

14. Paid $1,500 for shoes, which was a reduction of \ 
10, and 16|^ from the regular price. What was the 
amount of the discounts? Ans. $1,000. 

15. Bought goods at 20, VZy^ and 10^ off, and the 
amount of the discounts was $549.12. What did the 
goods cost? Ans. $1,010.88. 

16. Discounts of 20, 10, and 5, were allowed on a bill 
of goods. What single discount would have made the 
cost of the goods the same? Ans. 31f^. 

17. A man begins business with $5,000. The first 
year he gained XAy^^^fo^ which he added to his first capi- 
tal; the second year he gained 8^ on his investment 
which he also put into his business; the third year he 
lost 12^ of his capital. How much more has he now 
than when he began ? Ans. %A^2.^2. 

18. Sold flour at an advance of 13^^; invested the 
proceeds again and sold at a profit of 24^, realizing 
$3,952.50. How much did each lot of flour cost me? 

Ans. $2,812.50; $3,187.50. 

19. Goods are marked to gain 40^, but the dealer 



ARITHMETIC 145 

throws off 10^, and then pays 20^ for collecting the 
debt. What is his percent of gain or loss? 

Ans. I^gain. 

20. I sold two watches for the same price. On one I 
gained 25 per cent, on the other I lost 25^. I lost $30. 
What was the cost of each watch? Ans. $180; $300. 

21. How must cloth costing $4.50 a yard be marked 
so that the merchant may deduct 10^ from the marked 
price and still make 15^? Ans. $5.75. 

22. Sold two houses for $2,419 each, gaining 18^ on 
one and losing 18^ on the other. How much do I gain 
or lose? Ans. $162 loss. 

23. A dealer increased the price of a lot of coal $61.50 
thereby changing his profit from 11^ to 14^. What 
was selling price of the coal? Ans. $2,337. 

24. Bought oil at 15 cents a gallon. 20^ having 
leaked out, at what price per gallon must I sell the 
remainder to gain 20^ on the whole? Ans. 22^ cents. 

25. By selling a house for $5,610 I lost 12^. For 
what should I have sold it to gain 16^? Ans. $7,395. 

26. Bought gloves at 10 and \ off the list price and 
sold them for the list price. What per cent did I gain? 

Ans. 38|^. 

27. A dealer sold grain for $2,337 and gained 18^. 
What per cent would he have gained by selling for 
$2,325? Ans. 24 fo. 

28. How many shares of stock must be bought at 
86^, and sold at 93^, brokerage }ifo in each case, so 
that $468 may be gained? Ans. 72 shares. 

29. What per cent of assessment is made when the 
owner of 35 shares pays $231 more than the owner of 28 
shares? Ans. 33^. 

: 30. A dividend of 12^ per cent was declared after 



146 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

which a man had 135 shares. How many shares had he 
before? Ans. 120 shares. 

31. What is the annual income on U. S. 4j^'s bought 
for $63,900 at 106^^, brokerage yip. Ans. $2,700. 

32. Which is better and by what per cent, to buy 
7>^^ stock at 120, or 4>^^ stock at 75? 

Ans. The former by ^^. 

33. What must I invest in U. S. 5's at 118 to yield an 
annual income of $960.50 in currency, when gold is 113? 

Ans. $20,060. 

34. Bought stock at 90 which yielded the same annual 
income as 15^ stock bought at 225. What was the rate 
on my purchase ? Ans. 6'fo. 

35. What per cent on investment does a man make 
who buys 5^ stock at 10^ discount? Ans. 5|^. 

36. What must be paid for 8^ bonds to realize 7^4% 
on investment ? Ans. 106^. 

37. A note for $565.80, dated June 3, 1894, was paid 
Nov. 28, 1899, interest 7^; what was the amount paid? 

Ans. $783.08+. 

38. A note of $850, dated March 4, 1885, interest 6.^, 
was indorsed as follows: Sept. 1, 1885, $12; May 4, 1886, 
$10; Sept. 15, 1886, $250; Jan. 20, 1887, $400. What 
was due, July 1, 1888? Aits. $293.14+. 

39. What is the amount at annual interest of $875 for 
4 yr., 8 mo., 12 da. at 10^? Ans. $1,363.25. 

40. What is the difference between the simple and 
annual interest of $1,560 from June 12, 1880, to January 
18, 1886, at 5^? Ans. $50.70. 

41. What will be the cost of a draft for $550, at 30 
days, interest 4^, exchange ^^premium ? 

Ans. $551.42. 

42. What is the face of a draft on New York, at 90 



ARITHMETIC 147 

days sight, which may be bought for $1,000, exchange 
yiio discount, and money being worth 7^? 

Ans. $1,027.57. 

43. The face of a draft for 30 days, exchange being 
98^, and interest 6^, was $1,588,595. What was the 
cost? Ans, $1,560. 

44. A note of $1,440 dated April 13, 1901, payable in 
7 mo., was discounted August 12, 1901, at 6^. Find 
proceeds. Ans. $1,416.96 

45. A note of $1,200 dated Feb. 13, 1897, due in 9 
mo. with interest at 6^, was discounted in bank July 31, 
1897, at8^^. What were the proceeds ? Ans. $1,224.49. 

46. A bank paid $336.43 for a note of $340 at 6^ dis- 
count. How long did the note run? A71S. 60 days. 

47. The bank discount on a 60-day note was $72.66, 
interest 6^. Find the face of the note. Ans. $6,920. 

48. A dealer sold oil at $1.25 a barrel and took in 
payment a 99-day note, which he discounted in bank at 
6^. The proceeds were $1,228.75. How many barrels 
of oil were sold ? Ans. 1,000 barrels. 

49. A note dated May 9, 1898, due Sept. 21, 1899, 
interest 8^, was discounted in bank June 26, 1899, at 
6^. If the proceeds were $874.68, what was the face of 
the note. ? Ans. $800. 

50. What must be the length of evergreen ropes to 
reach from the center of a ceiling 20 ft. square, to each 
corner, allowing three feet for the drooping of each fes- 
toon? Ans. 68.56 ft. +. 17.14 ft. each. 

51. A rectangular garden 180 ft. long and 108 ft. 
wide, is surrounded by a tight board fence 5^ ft. high. 
What is the cost of painting both sides of the fence at 18 
cents a square yard? Ans. $120.96- 

52. The width of a house is 32 feet. The rafters. 



148 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

which project 2>^ feet over the sides of the building, 
are 22^ feet long. What is the height of the gable ? 

Ans. 12 feet. 

53. How many yards of carpet ^ oi a yard wide will 
be required for a room 18^ feet long, 15 feet wide, if 
the strips run lengthwise, and an allowance of 8 inches 
is made for matching? A7is. 44^ yards. 

54. What will it cost to slate a roof, each side of 
which is 34 feet 9 inches long, and 16 feet wide, at $4.75 
per square, allowing 4 slates to a square? Ans. |211.28. 

55. What will it cost to plaster a room 18 feet long, 
15 feet wide, 10 feet high, if there are 6 windows 3 feet 
6 inches wide, 6 feet high, and 4 doors, 4 feet wide, 7 
feet 6 inches high, at $1.75 a square yard ? A7is. $133. 

56. The above room was papered as follows: The 
paper cost 42 cents per roll (a roll is 8 yards long and 18 
inches wide; the paper hanger charged 10 cents per roll 
for hanging; the picture moulding extended entirely 
around the room and cost 7^ cents per foot. What was 
the entire cost? Ans. $13.83. 

57. A field in the form of a trapezoid is 60 rods long, 
and contains 16 acres, 20 square rods. If one of its 
parallel sides is 38 rods long, what is the length of the 
other? A71S. 48 rods. 

58. The edges of a triangular sail are 24, 27^, and 
36^ feet. What did it cost, at 45 cents a square yard ? 

Ans. $16.50. 

59. Find the area of a field whose sides measure 9, 
12, 13 and 14 rods, respectively, the distance from the 
starting point to the opposite corner being 15 rods? 

Ans. 134 acres. 

60. The diameter of the greater of two concentric 
circles is 30 ft., and that of the less is 20 ft. What is 
the area ofthe space between them. 

A7ts. 392.7+sq. ft. 



ARITHMETIC 149 

61. If the area of a circular field whose diameter is 
30 rods is 707-f square rods, what is the area of a circle 
whose diameter is 20 rods? Ans. 314|- sq. rds. 

62. How many more rods of fencing are required to 
enclose a square field that contains an acre, than to en- 
close a circular field of the same area ? Ans. 5.76 rods. 

63. How many square yards in the surface of a four- 
sided pyramidal roof, the length of each side being 22 
feet and the slant height 16 feet? Ans. 78| sq. yds. 

64. How many square yards of pasteboard in 100 cir- 
cular boxes, each of which is 2 inches high, 4 inches 
across the top, and the rim of the lid % inch deep ? 
Ans. 4.36^ sq. yds. 

65. How much hay in a conical stack 15 feet high and 
12 feet in diameter at the base, if each cubic foot weighs 
15 pounds? Ans. 3.8874-T. 

66. How many square inches of map surface on a 15- 
inch globe? A71S. 706.86. 

67. How much leather will be required to cover 600 
balls if the circumference of each is 12 inches? 

Ans. 190| sq. ft. 

68. A street f of a mile long and 100 feet wide is 6 
feet below grade. At 60 cents a cubic yard, what is the 
cost of fining it up to grade? Ans. $61,600. 

69. If a bushel measure is 18)^ inches in diameter 
and 8 inches deep, what must be the diameter and depth 
of a half-bushel measure of similar form ? 

Ans. 14.6-f inches, diameter. 6.3-}- inches, depth. 

70.- How many quarts of water will a pan contain 
which measures 11}^ inches across the bottom, 14 inches 
across the top, and 3^ inches up the side? 

Ans. 6. 65 -|- quarts. 

71. At 85 cents a bushel what is the value of wheat 



I50 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

sufficient to fill a bin 25 feet long, 20 feet wide, 12 feet 
high? Ans. $4,080. 

72. What will be the cost of flooring for a two story 
house 24 feet long, 32 feet wide, at $40 a thousand, the 
boards being \% inches thick? Ans. $76.80. 

73. I wish to build a cistern that will hold 20 hogs- 
heads (63 gal. each), and to have it 5 feet, 10 inches in 
diameter. How deep must it be? Ans. 6 ft., 3.6-J-in. 

74. What are the solid contents of a globe whose 
diameter is 15 inches? Ans. 1 cu. ft., 391.5 cu. in. 

75. A pile of grain in the form of a cone is 7 feet high 
and 16 feet in diameter. How many bushels are in the 
pile? Ans. 376-|- bushels. 

76. How many bricks (8 in. X 4 in. X 2 in.) will be 
required for a square chimney 86 feet high, 10 feet wide at 
the bottom, and 4 feet wide at the top, outside, and the 
inside opening 3 feet square ? Ans. 89,857. 

77. A man owns a lot 320 feet long, 140 feet wide. 
He places a walk all around it 8 feet wide. What will it 
cost to pave this walk at 75 cents a square yard ? 

Ans. $592. 

78. How many feet, board measure, in a 4 -inch plank 
that is 15 feet, 6 inches long 2 feet 3 inches wide at one 
end, and 1 foot 11 inches at the other end ? 

A71S. 129 J feet. . 

79. What will it cost to paint a steam boiler 30 feet 
long and 5 feet in diameter, at 2 cents a square foot, 
allowing 10 square feet for openings? Ans, $10.01-1-. 



CHAPTER VII. 

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS IN 
ALGEBRA. 

7. Define quantity. 

Quantity is the amount or extent of anything. A 
quantity may be increased, diminished or measured. 

2. What is mathematics ? 

Mathematics is a science which treats of the proper- 
ties, relations and measurements of quantities. 

J. What is algebra ? 

Algebra is a general method of solving problems and 
investigating the general relations and properties of 
numbers by means of figures and symbols. 

^. Hozv do algebra and arithmetic differ ? 

In arithmetic the figures represent definite numbers 
and the signs are symbols of operations to be performed. 

In algebra, numbers are generally represented by let- 
ters, and the signs are symbols of relation and operation. 

5. Define known and unknown quantities and tell hozv 
represejited. 

Known or literal quantities are such as have definite 
values, either expressed or assigned. They are generally 
represented by the first letters of the alphabet or by 
figures. 

Unknown quantities are those whose values are to be 
found. They are represented by the last letters of the 
alphabet. 

6. Name the signs of operation. 



152 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

These signs are, + plus; — minus; ±, the double 
sign, meaning either plus or minus; X, times, also indi- 
cated by a dot (a. b. c), or by writing the factors in close 
succession (abc) ; ~-^ divided by, also expressed by 

writing the quantities as a fraction, lj\ or by using the 
ratio sign {a:b). 

J. Give the signs of aggregation. 

The parenthesis ( ), the brackets [ ], the braces \ \ ^ 
the vinculum , and the bar | , are the signs of aggre- 
gation. They show that the quantities included by them 
are to be subjected to the same process. 

8. Name and explain the signs of relation. 

The sign of equality, =, denoting that the numbers 
between which it is placed are equal. 

The sign of inequality > or <, denoting that the 
numbers thus placed are unequal, the opening being 
toward the greater number. 

The sign of deduction .-., meaning hence, or therefore. 

The sign of continuation .... or - - - -, meaning 
and so on. 

g. Define coefficient. 

A known factor placed before a quantity to show how 
many times the quantity is taken, is called a coefficient. 
A coefficient expressed by figures is a numeral co- 
efficient; when it contains one or more letters it is a lit- 
eral coefficient. 

10. Define power. Exponent. 

A power of a number is the product arising from tak- 
ing the number one or more times as a factor. 

A number placed at the right of a quantity denoting 
how many times it is to be taken as a factor, is called 
the exponent. It may be numerical or literal: as x^^ 
or x^. 



ALGEBRA 153 

//. Define root. Radical sign. Index. 

One of the equal factors of a quantity is called the 
root. 

The sign of evolution -|/ , also called the radical sign., 
when placed over a number, indicates that the root is 
required. 

The number placed above this sign -^ ", is called the 
index of the root. When no index is given the sign -j/ 
indicates the square root. 

12. What is an algebraic expression ? 
An algebraic expression is the expression of a quantity 
in algebraic symbols. 

7j. Define term; similar terms. 

A term is an algebraic expression not connected with 
another by the signs -f or — . 

Similar, or like terms are those which are composed of 
the same letters and their corresponding letters affected 
by like exponents. 

I /J.. What are the different classes of terms ? 
A monomial, which consists of a single term. 
A polynomial which contains two or more terms. 
A binomial which is a polynomial of two terms. 

75. What is meant by the dimerisions of a term. ? By its 
degree ? 

The dimensions of a term are its literal factors. 

The degree of a term is the number of its literal 
factors, and is determined by the sum of their ex- 
ponents. 

16. What is a homogeneous polynomial ? 

It is one whose terms are all of the same degree. 

ly. What is '"'■numerical value T' 

The numerical value of an algebraic expression is the 



154 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

number obtained by substituting a number for each 
letter, and then performing the operations indicated. 

1 8. What are the signs of opposition^ and how used? 

In algebra the signs -{- and — not only denote oper- 
ation, but they also show that the quantities belong to 
opposite series. 

In temperature, degrees above zero may be considered 
as + degrees of temperature, those below zero as — de- 
grees. Thus if the mercury falls 10° below zero we in- 
dicate it thus — 10°. If it fall 6° more we say it is 16° 
below, and we express this second variation thus, — 10° 
and — 6° is — 16°. So in algebra, a number preceded by 
-h, expressed or understood, is called a positive quan- 
tity; one preceded by — is called a negative quantity. 
These signs are called positive and negative signs, and 
numbers having the same signs are said to have like 
signs. 

jp. Explaiii the laws of the signs as relating to addition 
of quantities. 

In adding — 10° and — 6°in the preceding explanation, 
we found the result to be the sum of the figures with the 
— sign prefixed. Had the signs been -j- the sum of the 
figures would have been the same but the signs would 
have differed. 

Hence, in adding quantities with like signs, the re- 
sult is the sum of the quantities with the common sign 
prefixed. If our thermometer be 16° below zero or ™ 
16°, and rise 20° we find that it has not only reached the 
zero point but passed beyond it the difference between 
20° and — 16°, which is 4° above, or +4°. 

Hence in adding two numbers of unlike signs the re- 
sult is the difference between the quantities with the 
sign of the greater term prefixed. 

20. Why are the signs changed in subtraction ? 



ALGEBRA 155 

If there are two elevators in a building and one travels 
upward from a given floor 3 stories (+3), and another 
travels downward 2 stories ( — 2) the passengers in the 
two are 5 stories apart [-|-3 above -j- ( — 2 below)=5 
apart]. To obtain this we have really added the two 
quantities. If the first elevator had traveled 2//'w^r<^ 3 
stories (+3) from the starting place, and the second had 
traveled upward 1 story (+1) then we readily see they 
would have been but 2 stories (-|-2) apart, and both 
above, [-f 3 above — (-{-1 above)= -f2 apart]. Had the 
elevators traveled downward from the same place, the 
distances just mentioned, their relation would have been 
the same, except that both would have been below, ( — 2). 
But if one is at — 1, and the other travels — 3 spaces up- 
ward from it, it will be at +2 above their first starting 
place, [ — 1 below — ( — 3 below)=+2 above]. 

Hence, in subtraction, we change the signs in the 
subtrahend and add the resulting quantities. 

21. Give the laws for the signs in multiplication and 
division. 

Like signs give +? unlike signs give — . As multipli- 
cation is a short method of addition, and division is the 
inverse of multiplication, the laws which applied in the 
proof of addition are applicable in the proof of the other 
two processes. 

22. What is the law of exponents ? 

The exponent of the product of two or more powers of 
a number is equal to the sum of all the exponents. 

2j. What is an equation ? 

An equation is an expression of equality between two 
quantities. 

24.. What are the parts of an equation ? 

The first member (the quantity at the left), the sign 



156 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

of equality, and the second member (the quantity at the 
right). 

2§. What is transposition ? 

It is the process of changing a term from one member 
of an equation to the other. 

26. What are the laws of equations ? 

(1) A quantity may be transposed if its sign be 
changed. This is based on the principle that adding or 
subtracting equal quantities to both members does not 
change the value of an equation. 

(2) The signs of all the terms in an equation may be 
changed since the result is the same as multiplying both 
members by — 1. 

(3) Both members of an equation may be multiplied 
or divided by the same number without altering the 
value of the equation. 

2y. What are the three general principles most often 
used in algebra ? 

Principle I. The square of the sum of two quantities 
is equal to the square of the first, plus twice the product 
of the first by the second, plus the square of the second. 

Principle II. The square of the difference of two 
quantities is equal to the square of the first, minus twice 
the product of the first by the second, plus the square 
of the second. 

Principle III. The product of the sum and difference 
of two numbers is equal to the difference of their squares. 

28. What is the Binomial Theorem ? 

By the Binomial Theorem (discovered by Sir Isaac 
Newton), the sum or difference of any two quantities 
may be raised to any power. Its laws are as follows: 

I. The number of terms in the result is always one 
more than the exponent of the power. 



ALGEBRA 157 

II. The exponent of the first term is the same as the 
exponent of the given power and decreases by one in 
each succeeding term. 

III. The exponent of the second term of the binomial, 
is one in the second term of the series and increases by 
one in each succeeding term. 

IV. The last term of the binomial does not appear in 
the first term of the series, and its first term does not 
appear in the last term of the series. 

V. The coefficient of the first term is one, and the co- 
efficient of the second term is the same as the power. 
In the succeeding terms the coefficient may be found by 
multiplying the coefficient of the preceding term by the 
exponent of the leading letter and dividing the product 
b}' the number of the term. 

VI. When both terms are positive the signs will be 
positive. When the second term is negative, all the odd 
terms will be positive and all the even terms negative. 

2g. What is the reciprocal of a quantity ? 
The reciprocal of a quantity is 1 divided by that quan- 
tity. 

JO. What is the sign of a fraction f 
It is the sign written before the dividing line, and be- 
longs to the fraction as a whole. 

J/. What determines the degree of an equation ? 
The degree of an equation is determined by the high- 
est power of the unknown quantity which it contains. 

J2. What is a simple equation f A quadratic equatioyi ? 
A literal equation ? 

A simple equation is an equation of the first degree. 

A quadratic equation is an equation of the second 
degree. 

A literal equation is an equation in which some or all 
of the unknown quantities are expressed by letters. 



158 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

jj. What are simultaneous equations ? 
Simultaneous equations are those in which the same 
unknown quantities have the same value. 

J/. What is elimination ? 

The process of deducing from simultaneous equations, 
other equations containing a less number of unknown 
quantities than is found in the given equations, is called 
elimination. 

J5. What are the methods of elimination f 
Elimination by substitution, by comparison, and by 
addition and subtraction. 

jd. What is involution ? Evolution ? 

Involution is the process of raising a quantity to a 
given power. 

Evolution is the process of finding the required root of 
a given quantity. 

J/. What of the signs in involution and evolution ? 

In involution all the even powers of a quantity are posi- 
tive and all the odd powers have the sign of the quantity 
itself. 

In evolution, the sign of the even root of a positive 
quantity may be either -f or — , but the odd root of any 
number has the same sign as the number itself. 

J 8. Explain the meaning of fractional exponents. 

According to the fundamental law of expoj:ients the ex- 
ponent of the power of a quantity is equal to the sum of 
the exponents of its factors. 

l_L.i 

Therefore, m\y^m\-^m,'^ ^=m^ or m\ 
since m\Y,m\--m^ then m\=\/'m\ or the square root of 
m is denoted either by -j/^ or ni^. 

NOTK. — The principles which apply to problems in factoring and fractions 
in algebra are the same as those of similar processes in arithmetic. To these 
should be added the laws of signs and other principles applied in addition, 
subtraction, m^ultiplication, and division, of algebraic quantities. 



ALGEBRA 159 

From this it follows, that the numerator of a fractional 
exponent denotes the power of the quantity and the de- 
nominator denotes the root of that power. 

jp. Give explanation of zero and negative exponents, 
a^y^a^^a*" (exponents added). 
a^-^a^=a^ (exponents subtracted), 
a^-^a^=l 
Therefore ^^=1 

Hence any quantity having for an exponent equals 1. 
x^~-x^=x~^ (exponents subtracted). 

x^ 1 

— = — (same operation expressed fractionally). 

x^ x^ 

Therefore — (the reciprocal of x^)=x~^. 
x^ 

Therefore, the reciprocal of a quantity is equal to that 

quantity with the sign of its exponent changed. It also 

follows, that any factor may be transferred from one 

term of a fraction to another if the sign of its exponent 

be changed. 

^o. How is the sum, etc. , of quantities with negative 
or fractional exponents found ? 

By following the same law of exponents as is applied 
when the exponents are whole numbers; namely, adding 
or subtracting them as the conditions of the problem 
demand. 

/f-i. Define radical; rational quantity; irrational quan- 
tity. 

A radical is the indicated root of a quantity. 

A rational quantity is one without a radical sign, or 
one whose root can be found exactly. 

A surd, or irrational quantity is one whose exact root 
cannot be found. 

^^. How is the degree of a radical indicated? 



i6o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The degree of a radical is indicated by the index of 
the radical sign or by the denominator of the fractional 
exponent. 

^j. What are similar radicals ? 

Similar radicals are those which have the same index 
and the same number under the radical. 

^^. How are radicals added or subtracted? 

To add or subtract radicals, reduce them to similar 
radicals, and prefix the sum or difference of their coeffi- 
cients to the radical part. If the radicals cannot be 
made similar, indicate the operation by a suitable sign. 

^5. To what is the product of two or 7nore radicals 
equal? 

To the products of their coefficients prefixed to the 
product of the radical quantities. 

4.6. How is the quotient of two similar radicals found? 
By dividing their coefficients and prefixing the result 
to the common radical. 

^7. What is rationalization ? 

Rationalization is the process of changing the number 
under the radical so that its root may be found. 

^8. How is rationalization applied? 

In clearing the denominators of fractions of radicals, 
and in dividing radicals which are not similar. 

A radical is rationalized by multiplying by such a 
factor as will render it rational; thus: 

l/ 5^1/ 3_x^ 15^1/ i5^^]/i5- 
/f.g. What are the two classes of quadratic equations ? 



ALGEBRA i6i 

A pure, or incomplete quadratic equation, which con- 
tains only the second power of the unknown quantity. 

An affected, or complete quadratic equation, which 
contains both the first and second powers of the unknown 
quantity. 

50. How may complete quadratic equations be solved? 

If the coefficient of the term containing the second 
power of the unknown quantity is not a perfect square, 
make it such by multiplying or dividing both members 
of the equation. Then add to both sides of the equation 
the square of one-half the coefficient of the second term, 
thus completing the square of the first member. 

Extract the square root of each member, and find the 
values of the unknown quantity. 

As the square root of a quantity may be either plus or 
minus, the unknown quantity will always have two 
values. 

Problems. 

1. Find the value of the following when -^=2^, ^=|, 

ux — uy , ^ A ^ 

-^ Vz{y^z)=^l Ans. 0. 

xy — uz ^ \^ \ ) 

When 2^=1, ^=4, j=9, z=\(y\ 



y wxyz -^ 

wxy^^z ~' ^^^- f 

2. Simplify: 

a — b — \ — Zc — \_{a-\-b) — {a — b — c)"] — 2c )- . 

Ans. a-\-b-\-lc. 



{p'^J^\) — lab—\ —{-^2ab-^7)—ab—b^—7 }+2b'-^. 

Alts, 1, 



i62 SEELE Y *S QUEST/ON BOOK 

3. Factor: 

Ans. (x^ — ■j/2-|-^+^) (^^ — f^ — a — b). 
{x'^—xy) 2—2 {x^—xy) (xy—l) + (xy—1)^. 

Ans. {x^—2xy-^l) {x^—'2xy-\-l). 

ax^ — by'^-\-2ax'^y — bx'^-\-axy'^ — 2bxy. 

A ns. {ax — b) (x-\-y) {x-{-y) . 
Slx^—72xy-{-16y^ 

A ns. (Zx-\-2y) (3x+2y) (3x—2y) (Zx-'2y). 

4. Find highest common factor of : 

^4_5^3_j_8^^_7^_|_3and 2^3—9^^+10^—3. 

Ans. a^ — 4^+3. 

x^-S)x^--Z^x—2S and x^-\-x'^—1x'^-\-Sx. 

Ans. x^-\-3x-\-5. 

14^4_|__^3_|_8j/a_j/_f-2 and 6y'^-\-7y^-\-7y^+3y-\-l. 

Ans. 2y^-\-y-\-\. 

5. Find Least Common Multiple of: 

Ans. /3_3/2__4/_|.i2. 

:tr2— 4, x^-i-2xi+4x-i-8, x^—2x^-^4x—8. 

Ans. x^—l(), 

y&—y, jJ/3 — 1, J/^+1, J/4+J/2 + 1. 

A7ts. y"^ — ^. 

6. Reduce to lowest terms: 

x^—b^x ^^^ x(x-{-b) 
x^—2bx-{-b^ ' x—b 

(^a-b)2-{-ib-c)i-{-(c-a)^ ^^^^ 2 



a^-{-b^-]-c^ — 3abc a-\-b-j-c 



ALGEBRA 163 

7. Reduce to simple fractions: 

y^~^yTT 
a—l 

: — . Ans. a — 1. 



a 



a^\ 



8. Reduce to simplest form : 

a^ — x"^ a^A-x^ a^ — x^ ^ a^ — a^x^-{-x^ 
a'^-\-x^~^a^—x^^a^-\-x^~^a^-]-a^X^-i^ 

2^4 



Ajts. 



a^^x^. 
V . Ans. a. 

\x—l 2(,r+l 2(.r^— 1 / ^ ^ 



Ans. 0. 



9. Find the value of 






Ans. — 



^ 2ab 



{a—b)' 




2ab ^ [ . b j Ans. 1. 



10. Find the value of the unknown quantities in the 
following problems: 



i64 



SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 



11. 



12. 



13. 



14. 



[c , d 

-A — =in 
X y 

j c d 



[ ax-\-by=^r 

\ by-\-cz=s 

\^ax-\-cz=v 



Ans. ;r= 



2c 



\ 



2x^Sy 10 ' X 



.+ 



^ 



I ^ 7 _ 5 91 
t ^~~^~^ 90 J 



f 5;ir— 3_;/4-25'=25 
-{ 3;rH-7j/— 2^=— 19 
t4;ir4-3j/— 2^=-2. 

( x~'^-\-y~^=a ^ 



//^ -|-^' 



_y= 



2d 



Ans. x= 



ni — n. 



r — s-\-v 



y- 



z= 



2a ' 

r-]-s — V 
~2l 
s — r-\-v 



2c. 



Ans. x^S 



Ans. x=3 
y=-4i. 



Ans. X- 



a-\-b — c 



y=a—b^i 



— a-\-b-\'e' 



15. Find the square root of: 

Ajis. 2a^—a^—Za-\-2. 
ia'-^iM-\-ia^-\-ib'^+b^j\. 



ALGEBRA 165 

16. What is the cube root of: 

A71S. 2c'^—Zcd^d\ 
x^y-^—()X^-[-l2x'^y^Sy^. Ans . x'^y-'^—2y\ 

17. Simplify: 

|/45;r3'+5|/2o^3 — j/80^3. Am. 9x1/5^. 

3/rx2/|X5i/7-f-|/S- ^^^^- ^V^- 

18. Simplify: 

Ans. f^—dfS. 
(x^) — ^X(^~^)^. Ans. x~^ ov x)4. 



19. Find the value of the unknown quantity in the 
following problems: 

19. 2 1 



20. 



|/^3_i l/y^-7' 

\ ^—3 i/«— 3 



Ans. y=±:3. 



Ans. diS. 



Ans. 


-V 


a — 2 


Ans. 


Tor- 


-1 3 



21. 2 , 2 ^ a 



22. 7 2;r— •5 _ 3;tr— 7 
4 ;r4-5 2;ir * 

23. 7^ — (a — l)j/ — a=-o. Ans. y=^a, or — 1. 

^A f X i.\ ^ ^(^b , , . • r-\-b b — a 

• 24. (aA-b)x^ jX=a-\-b. Ans. x=^ yor-r-, — 

^ ^ a — b a — b b-\-a. 

x-\-\ d4-l . J \ 

25. — 1:^=— ^' Ans. x=^d, or -. 

yx yd c 



i66 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

^^' i/2"iq:^=-^'j+6+i. A71S. x==6, or ~^. 

27. ya~^2>-^^^^^=i(). Ans. ^=13 or 78. 

28. x^-\-xy-\-2y^=AA. Ans. x=±:2, or zbi/l 
2x'^ — ;rj/_|_j/2=l6. j^=±4, or ±3-1/2. 

29. 1 1^^ 

■^ -^ Ans. x=S, or 10; /=10, or 5. 

^"^^ ~~20' 

30. x^ — xj/-\-y^ = 19. Ans. x=S, or — 2. 
;r — y =3. J=2, or — 5. 

31. From a tank of oil, one-fifth was sold, and after- 
wards 10 gallons leaked away. The tank was then ys 
full. How much was in it at first ? A7is. 75 gallons. 

32. A boy was hired for 40 days, at fifty cents a day 
and his board. For each day he was idle he forfeited 25 
cents. At the end of the time he received $11, how 
many days did he work? A7is. 28 days. 

33. There are three numbers which added together 
make 460. The second is ^ of the remainder left after 
taking 40 from the first, and the third is 100 less than 
twice the first. What are the numbers? 

Ans. 160, 80, and 220. 

34. When a general drew up his regiment in a solid 
square he found that he had 35 men too many, but if he 
put one man more in the front rank he had 30 men too 
few. How many men in the regiment ? 

A71S. 1,059 men. 

35. If I loan my money for a given time at 6%, the in- 
terest will be $720. If I loan it for 3 years longer, the 
interest will be $1,800. Find the amount of money and 
the time. Ans. $6,000. 2 years. 



ALGEBRA 167 

36. A man walked 87 miles in 3 days. One-third the 
distance walked the first day equaled % the distance 
walked the second day, and yz the distance walked the 
second day equaled % the distance walked the third day. 
How far did he walk each day ? 

A71S. 27 miles, first day; 36 miles, 
second day; 24 miles, third day. 

37. A man has two square fields. The side of one is 
2y2, rods longer than the side of the other, and both 
together contain 1,131X square rods. How much larger 
is the first one than the second? Ans. 118^ sq. rds. 

38. The sum of two numbers multiplied by their prod- 
uct is 70. Their difference multiplied by their product 
is 30. What are the numbers ? Ans. 5 and 2. 

39. A person bought two pieces of cloth which together 
measured 36 yards. Each cost as many dollars a yard as 
there were yards in the piece. If one piece cost 4 times 
as much as the other how many yards were in each piece ? 

Ans. 12 yds; 24 yds. 

40. If the numerator of a fraction be multiplied by 2, 
and 2 be added to its denominator, the result will be one; 
but if the denominator be multiplied by 2, and 3 be 
added to the numerator, the result will be ^. What is 
the fraction? Ans. Y^. 

41. At what time between 3 and 4 o'clock are the 
hands of a watch opposite each other ? At what time 
between 8 and 9 o'clock? 

Ans. 49 j^ minutes past 3. 
10^^ minutes past 8. 

42. The sum of the three digits of a number is 10. 
The sum of the first and last digit is Yi of the second 
digit; and if 198 be taken from the number the digits 
will be reversed. What is the number? Ans. 361. 

43. There are three numbers such that \ the first, \ the 
second, and \ the third, together make 115; J- the first, J 



i68 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOM 

the second, \ the third, together make 86; and J the first, 
\ the second, and |- the third, together make 69. What 
are the numbers? Ans. 60, 120, 180. 

44. The height of a room is Yz the breadth, and the 
breadth is 6 feet less than the length. It cost $80, at 50 
cents a square yard to plaster the room. What are its 
dimensions ? 

Ans. 4 yards, height; 6 yards, breadth; 8 yards, length. 

45. A banker has two kinds of coin ; it takes a pieces 
of the first to make a dollar, and b pieces of the second to 
make the same sum. How many pieces of each kind 
must be taken that c pieces will make a dollar ? 

Ans. 2^>' ^^^- 
a — ^, {a — 0) 

46. The length of a rectangle is to its width as 5 to 4 ; 
if 8 feet be added to each dimension, the length will be 
to the width as 7 to 6. What are its dimensions ? 

Ans. 20 ft. and 16 ft. 

47. The difference of two numbers is 8, and twice the 
sum of their reciprocals is equal to 3 times the difference 
of their reciprocals. What are the numbers ? 

Ans. 10 and 2. 

48. Find two numbers whose sum, product and differ- 
ence of their squares are equal. 

Ans. J(3±l/5),i(i±l/5)- 

49. A cistern supplied by two pipes could be filled by 
one alone in 5 hours less than by the other alone, and 
both together could fill it in 6 hours. In how many 
hours could each fill it alone ? Ans. 15 hours; 10 hours. 

50. The sum of the diagonal and the longer side of a 
rectangle is three times the length of the shorter side, 
and the difference in the length of the two sides is 4 
yards. What is the area of the rectangle ? 

Ans. 192 square yards. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

THE IDEA that the purpose of the school is mere 
intellectual development is coming more and 
more to be abandoned. No good work, either 
manual or mental, can be done when the body is not 
properly nourished. Some years ago during a great coal 
strike, which lasted for many weeks and reduced the 
miners to the verge of starvation, it was found that the 
children of the strikers were unable to perform their 
tasks as well as they had formerly done. Doubtless the 
unsettled conditions prevailing, the lawlessness, rioting, 
and anxiety in the homes had much to do with this; but 
the uncertainty of meals, the scarcity of food, the poverty 
that was so intensely aggravated were the prime causes of 
poor school work. The children were weak from lack of 
sufficient nourishment for their bodies, and that affected 
the mental output. 

A practical philanthropist in the city of Berlin annual- 
ly spends thousands of dollars in supplying rolls for the 
children in the schools of the poorer quarters of the city. 
He is as truly assisting in the education of the children as 
if he had supplied textbooks or other school material. 
The authorities of Paris spend large sums annually in 
furnishing food for hungry school children, and London 
is now agitating the same question. 

Nor is scarcity of food the only hygienic condition to 
be considered. In many homes even where there is 
abundance as well as in homes of the poor, there is ignor- 
ance and neglect in the matter of cleanliness. The com- 



I70 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

monest rules for keeping the body clean are ignored 
because people do not appreciate the necessity of attend- 
ing to these thinofs. It would not be difficult to find 
either in the country or in the city plenty of places where 
sanitation is neglected, and where disease is invited 
through gross carelessness and ignorance. Diphtheria, 
or scarlet fever, or smallpox, or typhoid breaks out and 
ravages a community, finally arousing it to action when 
the damage is done, and compelling it to take steps 
which ought to have been taken as a preventative at the 
outset. 

Then, too, the ignorance among the American people 
of all classes as to kinds and uses of foods is appalling. 
It finds its emphatic expression in the universal suffer- 
ing from dyspepsia and other stomach and intestinal 
troubles. We do not know what to eat or how to eat. 
We mix the most incongruous articles of diet, bolting 
them down in a hurry; we patronize "ten-minute" lunch 
counters and are impatient if we have to wait a moment 
for service; we swallow hot bread and ice water; we top 
off our lobster-salad with a plate of ice cream, and then 
wonder why we have headache, heart-burn, indigestion, 
or colic. The only wonder is that we survive this gross 
abuse of the bodies God has given us and do not collapse 
much earlier than we do. Our intemperance extends to 
eating as well as drinking, and often intemperance in the 
latter is caused by intemperance in the former. We 
have not yet learned that it is just as truly a sin 
against the body to abuse it in eating as to abuse it in 
drinking. If we would teach the nature, value, and use 
of foods, and impress the necessity of self-control in the 
use of foods upon our pupils, there would be less need of 
instruction concerning stimulants, for a large part of the 
craving for drink would be eliminated. 

Great forward steps have been taken to teach the 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 171 

young the evils and dangers of stimulants and narcotics. 
Most states in the Union have laws requiring instruction 
upon these subjects in the common school. It is one of 
the most effective means for checking intemperance, in 
that it takes the child at a susceptible period of life and 
instructs him in the nature of alcohol and the danger of 
using it from a physical as well as from a moral stand- 
point. 

The reasons above given would seem to be sufficient to 
warrant the consideration of physiology and hygiene in 
the school. The common school alone reaches the great 
body of children and through it alone may we hope for 
universal attention to these matters. "The school 
teacher is the high priest of the future," says Professor 
Earl Barnes. The teacher is to sow seed that shall bear 
fruit in coming generations in better manhood and 
womanhood. The child must be taught the nature of his 
own body and how to care for it; must be instructed 
concerning foods, their purpose, preparation, character, 
and use; concerning stimulants and narcotics, their 
nature, use and abuse; concerning cleanliness, clothing, 
draughts, sleep, recreation, exercise, etc. 

The teacher must also be familiar with the subject of 
ventilation, light, heating, seating, cleanliness of the 
schoolroom, and know how to meet conditions. There 
are many things concerning the contagious diseases com- 
mon to children that the teacher should know; such as, 
the symptoms of measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, how 
to disinfect a schoolroom after a contagious disease has 
appeared so as to remove the danger to other children. 
It is the duty of the board of health to attend to this, 
but it is well that the teacher should know what to do in 
case other agencies fail. 

If the teacher possesses a knowledge of the human 
body, he will be able to give the kind of physical training 



172 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

necessary to produce symmetry, grace, and self-control; 
he will know how to correct deformities, such as, round- 
shoulderedness, or spinal curvature; secure graceful 
movement; mitigate weaknesses and remove them when 
possible, such as, weak eye sight, poor hearing or other 
physical deficiency. Knowledge of this kind will enable 
the teacher to do a great deal to preserve the health of 
the school and of the community. It will lessen the 
danger of many children coming together from all classes 
of homes to remain in close contact for several hours a 
day. It will also make school work more efficient by 
removing many obstacles from the pathway of unfortun- 
ate children. 

To summarize, then, such practical knowledge of 
physiology and hygiene should be possessed by the teach- 
er as to enable him to determine the right conditions of 
light, heat, ventilation, seating, and cleanliness; to know 
about food, when, how, how much, what kind to eat; the 
nature of narcotics and alcohol; concerning contagious 
diseases, and how to disinfect books and schoolroom; and, 
in general, how to train the body so as to bring it under 
the perfect control of the will. Such a practical applica- 
tion of physiology, and hygiene as has thus been outlined 
would be a great immediate blessing to our school chil- 
dren, and a still greater blessing upon future generations. 

Questions and Answers. 

/. Define anatomy^ physiology^ and hygiene. 

Anatomy is that science which treats of the structure 
of organic bodies. 

Physiology is that science which treats of the functions 
of organic bodies. 

Hygiene is a study of the laws of health and of the art 
of its preservation. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 173 

2. Define organ ; function. 

Any part of the body which has a special work to do, 
is called an organ. 

The work or action of an organ is its function. 

J. Define cells ; tissues. 

Cells are the units of structure in the body. 
Tissues are groups of similar cells devoted to a com- 
mon work. 

/J.. What is the skeleton ? 

The skeleton is the bony framework of the body. 

5. What are the uses of bo7tes ? 

The bones give form to the body, support the softer 
tissues, protect the delicate parts, and serve as levers 
in producing motion and locomotion. 

6. Give the composition of bone. 

Bone is composed of two parts mineral matter, and one 
part animal matter. The former gives rigidity to the 
bone, while the latter insures toughness and elasticity. 

7. Explain the structure of bodies. 

The structure of the bones is such as to combine the 
greatest strength and the least weight. If we examine 
one of the long bones we will find its exterior hard 
and resisting, its broad extremities porous, while the 
central portion is hollow. Careful examination will 
show that even the hardest portions are composed of 
fine tubes which increase both the strength and lightness. 
The marrow, the oily substance found in the interior of 
bones, supplies nourishment to them. The ends of the 
bones are covered with a thin layer of cartilage which 
lessens the friction in the movements of the joints. 

8. How are bones fastened together ? 



174 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The point of union between two or more bones is called 
an articulation, or joint. 

g. Name mid give examples of the differeiit kinds of 
joints. 

(1) Immovable joints, such as the sutures in the bones 
of the skull. 

(2) Mixed joints, such as are found between the verte- 
brae. 

(3) Movable joints which allow free motion of every 
part; as, the joints in the elbow and knee. 

10. What are the classes of movable joints ? 

(1) The ball and socket joint, found in the hip and 
shoulder. 

(2) Hinge joint, as in the knee and elbow. 

(3) Pivot, as in the forearm, and between the axis and 
atlas. 

(4) Gliding, as between the short bones of the ankle 
and wrist. 

11. Define periosteum ; endosteum- ; ligame^its ; synovial 
fluid. 

All bones are enveloped in a firm vascular membrane 
called the periosteum. It clings closely to the bone and 
nourishes it. 

The inner tube of the long bones is lined with a web 
of connective tissue known as the endosteum. 

The bones are held together by strong bands of fibrous 
connective tissue called ligaments. 

The articulating surfaces of bones are covered with a 
very fine, smooth membrane, called the synovial mem- 
brane, that secretes a slimy fluid, which serves to lubri- 
cate the joints and prevent friction. This fluid is called 
the synovial fluid. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 



175 



12. Give names and number of bones in the human body. 

1 Frontal 

2 Temporal 
2 Parietal 
1 Occipital 
1 Sphenoid 
1 Ethnoid 



Head 



Skull (8) 



Face (14) 



Ears (6) 



Cervical Region (8) 



2 Superior Maxillary 

2 Nasal 

2 Malar 

2 Lachrymal 

2 Turbinated 

2 Palate 

1 Vomer 

1 Inferior Maxillary 

Malleus 

Stapes 

Incus 

7 Cervical Vertebrae 
1 Hyoid 



Thorax (37) 



14 True, 6 False, 4 Floating Ribs 
12 Thoracic Vertebrae 
1 Sternum 



Upper Extremities (64) ^ 



Shoulder 



Arm 



Hand 



j Clavicle 
\ Scapula 
("Humerus 
< Radius 
I Ulna 

8 Carpal 

5 Metacarpal 
14 Phalanges 



176 



SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 



Lumbar Region (5) \ 5 Lumbar Vertebrae 

(2 Innominat 
Pelvis (4) I 1 Sacrum 
(l Coccyx 

f Thigh \ 1 Femur 



Lower Extremities (60) - 



(\ Patella 
Leg \ 1 Tibia 
ll Fibula 

( 7 Tarsal 
Foot < 5 Metatarsal 
1 14 Phalanges 

7j. What is the main support of the skeleton f De- 
scribe it. 

The spinal column is the main support of the skeleton. 
It bears the weight of the upper part of the body and 
maintains it in proper relation to the lower part. The 
spinal column is composed of twenty-six bones or 
vertebrae. Each vertebra is composed of a disc shaped 
body, with a bony arch at the back, and seven projecting 
processes. Each vertebra has a large opening extending 
through it up and down. The vertebrae are united by 
strong ligaments, while between them are cushions of 
very elastic cartilage. They are so united that their 
openings form one long tube called the spinal canal, 
which serves for the lodgment and protection of the 
spinal cord. The vertebral column has four curves by 
which the pressure is better distributed and an upright 
position more easily maintained. 

I//.. What are the cavities of the skeleton ? What does 
each contain ? 

(1) ThQ skull or craniiun, which is the bony box in 
v/hich the brain is located. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 177 

(2) The thoracic cavity, extending from the neck to 
the diaphragm, and containing the heart, lungs, esoph- 
agus and many blood vessels and nerves. 

(3) T\iQ pelvic or abdominal cavity, which contains the 
stomach, liver, kidneys, bladder, intestines, etc. 

75. Describe the ribs and explain the object of their 
dowmvard slope. 

Branching out from each side of the spinal column are 
twelve ribs. They slope downward and outward, and 
with the dorsal vertebrae and sternum form the bony 
walls of the thorax. All the ribs are united to the 
vertebrae by true joints. The seven true ribs are joined 
to the breast bone by flexible cartilages. The three false 
ribs unite to a cartilage which is common to them all, 
and by which they are attached to the breast bone. The 
two floating ribs have no. forward attachment. This 
articulation and the elasticity of the cartilages permit a 
considerable expansion of the chest cavity, which is 
essential to the process of breathing. 

16. What is a sprain ? A dislocation ? 
A sprain occurs when a ligament is strained or lacer- 
ated. 

A dislocation is a bone '*out of joint." 

77. Define atlas ^ axis., sesamoid bones. 

The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas. It is 
shaped like a ring, and upon its upper side are two 
smooth surfaces upon which the skull rests. 

The second vertebra, the axis., has a process called the 
odontoid process, which fits into the ring of the atlas and 
forms a pivot upon which the ring revolves. This 
arrangement allows the free motion of the head. 

Sesamoid bones are small seedlike bones or cartilages 
formed in the tendons, where unusual pressure is ex- 
erted, by the gliding motion of these tendons. 



178 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

1 8. What are muscles ? 

Muscles constitute what is called the "flesh" of the 
body. They are formed of numerous bundles of fleshy 
fibers bound together by a connective tissue. 

7p. What is the use of muscles ? 

Muscles are the direct instruments by which the 
movements of the various parts of the body are effected. 

20. Name and define the two classes of muscles. 
Voluntary muscles are those which are controlled by 

the direct action of the will; such as the muscles of the 
arm. 

Involuntary muscles are those which discharge their 
functions independently of the will; as the muscles of 
the stomach. 

21. How are the muscles attached to the parts to be 
moved? 

Voluntary muscles are usually connected with bones. 
This connection is effected either by muscular tissues 
or by means of white, firm, fibrous tissue called 
tendons. These tendons are flexible and inelastic 
and serve as connecting bands or cords when the parts 
to be moved are remote from the moving muscle. Where 
the tendons are attached to bones, their fibers penetrate 
the solid bone and hold very firmly. 

22. What other uses have inuscles besides being organs 
of motion ? 

Muscles not only move the parts of the body, but they 
also give to it form and symmetry. Besides this, they 
shield the blood-vessels, nerves and lymphatics; forma 
part of the covering of the cavities of the body; and 
serve to lessen the force of shocks and blows. 

2j. To what is the moving power of muscles due? 

The chief characteristic of muscular tissue is its 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 179 

ability to shorten, and at the same time to thicken and 
harden. It does its work by shortening, pulling on the 
bones by means of the tendons, and thus producing 
motion. 

2/1-. How are tJie tnuscles of the body arranged ? 

The muscles of voluntary motion are arranged in pairs 
on each side of the body, so that the right and left sides 
correspond exactly in the number and position of their 
muscles. 

2^. Define flexors^ extensors^ rotators^ sphincters. 

Flexors are muscles which bend the joints; as those 
which bend the forearm. 

Extensors are those muscles which restore the bent 
parts to their straight condition; as the muscles on the 
back of the arm. 

Rotators are those which turn the parts to which they 
are attached upon their axes; as the oblique muscles of 
the eye. 

Sphincters are ring-like muscles which close or con- 
strict natural openings of the body; as the eye and 
mouth. 

26. How is the action of a muscle controlled? 

The action of a muscle is controlled from the nerve 
centers. When a certain movement is to be made a 
message is sent from the brain along a nerve to the 
muscle which performs the desired movement. 

2J. Upon what system of physical mechanisin are the 
motions of the body based? Why ? 

The movements of the body by muscular action are 
performed through the mechanism of levers. This 
mechanism consists of a bar or lever, resting upon a 
fixed point or fulcrum, and acted upon by a force or 
power, which moves a weight attached to the lever. 



i8o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The lever system is utilized in the body to gain in 
range of motion. A muscle attached to the short end of 
a bone lever, and moving but a short distance, by its 
action moves the weight at the other end of the bone 
lever a long distance. 

28. Upon what does the development of the muscles 
depend? 

The development of the muscles depends upon a 
proper supply of food, suitable exercise, and the removal 
of waste matter. 

2g. What kind of exercise is best ? 

Exercise should be regular and judicious and should 
never be excessive. It should not be taken soon after 
meals, as all the blood is needed at that time for the 
organs of digestion. It should be of such a character as 
to produce a symmetrical and even development, not 
only of the voluntary muscles but of the vital organs. 
Real strength is in endurance and power to resist 
disease, and it is found only in an evenly developed 
organism. 

JO. What is the effect of alcohol upon muscular energy ? 

Alcohol does not permanently increase either the 
muscular energy of the body or its capacity for work. 
Repeated experiments show that the power for muscular 
work and endurance is diminished by the use of alcoholic 
stimulants. 

J J. How are the muscles affected by the use of tobacco ? 

Tobacco smoking or chewing diminishes the usefulness 
of muscles by its poisonous action at all times, and in 
youth by hindering development. The paralyzing effect 
of tobacco upon the nerve centers diminishes the amount 
of nerve energy which is available for muscular action. 
It is especially dangerous for growing children. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE i8i 

^2, What is excretion ? Name the organs of excretion. 

The process of the elimination of the waste products 
of the body is called excretion. The organs of excretion 
are the lungs, skin, and kidneys. 

33' What is the skin ? Describe it. 

The skin is the outer covering of the body. It con- 
sists of two distinct layers, the dermis or true skin, and 
the epidermis or scarf skin. 

The dermis, or inner layer, is composed of a dense 
network of fibrous and muscular tissue, and contains 
blood and lymphatic vessels,nerves, oil and sweat glands, 
hair and hair follicles. The surface of the dermis is 
rendered irregular by the papillae. These are made up 
of terminal blood vessel loops, and oval nerve enlarge- 
ments, and in them the sense of touch resides. 

The epidermis, or outer skin, is composed entirely of 
cells and is without blood vessels and nerves. The epi- 
dermis is not sensitive and is well adapted as a covering 
and protection for the sensitive tissues beneath. The 
pigment which gives color to the skin, lies in the deeper 
cells of the epidermis. 

j^. What are the functions of the skin ? 

The skin is a covering and protector of the surface of 
the body; an organ of sensation; an organ of excretion; 
a regulator of temperature; an organ of absorption, and 
an accessory organ of breathing. 

J3. What are the appendages of the skin ? 
The sweat and sebaceous glands and the hair and 
nails are classed as appendages of the skin. 

^6. Explain the structure and function of sweat glands. 

The sweat glands are minute tubes whose inner ends 
are closed and whose outer ends open upon the surface 
of the skin. The tubes are coiled in a sort of ball in the 



i82 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

connective tissue just beneath the dermis. As the blood 
flows around this coil it gives off lymph, and from this 
lymph the cells of the glands take certain waste matter 
which passes out to the surface of the skin. 

The sweat glands are thickly distributed over the 
entire body. They are of an excretory character and rid 
the body of waste matter. 

J 7. What are sebaceous glands ? 

Sebaceous glands are also found in the skin and secrete 
an oily matter which lubricates the skin and hair, thus 
preserving their softness and pliancy. 

J 8. Describe the hair and its uses. 

Hairs are distributed over most of the surface of the 
body. Each hair is oval, and is composed of a pith-like 
substance surrounded by a fibrous tissue and an outer 
layer of epidermis-like cells. Hairs are supplied with 
blood at the base of the hair follicles, and are strong and 
elastic. The hair has various uses. It protects the 
head from cold and heat. The eyebrows prevent per- 
spiration from running into the eyes, and the lashes keep 
dust out of the eyes. 

jp. What are the nails ? 

The nails are modifications of the epidermis. They 
are a support and defense to the ends of the fingers and 
toes, and assist in picking up and grasping small objects. 

^o. What care should be given the skin ? Why ? 

The skin should be carefully bathed and properly 
protected by clothing. 

Perspiration evaporates and leaves its solid matters 
crusted on the skin. Sebaceous excretions collect there, 
and dirt accumulates from without. All these sub- 
stances obstruct the pores and interfere with the healthy 
action of the skin, therefore they should be removed by 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 183 

frequent and careful bathing. In this way the pores will 
be kept open, excretion promoted, bodily temperature 
regulated, and the whole system put into a better con- 
dition to resist and ward off colds, fevers, skin eruptions, 
etc. 

^/. How does clothing regulate the heat of the body ? 

The body loses heat by radiation. Clothing hinders 
this loss by confining the warmed air between itself and 
the body. In like manner it protects the body from 
excessive external heat. Clothing also protects the body 
from dust and from the injurious effects of winds, damp- 
ness, etc. 

/J.2. What are three desirable qualities in clothing ? 

Lightness, proper ventilation, and warmth are desir- 
able qualities in clothing. 

4.J. What is food? 

Food includes all substances, whether liquid or solid, 
which are necessary for the nourishment of the body. 

^^. How are food substances classified? How inany 
che^nical elements must they supply ? 

Foods are classified as organic and inorganic. The 
body is said to contain fourteen chemical elements which 
must be supplied by food. The principal of these are 
carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. 

^5. Name the classes of organic foods. 

The organic foods ar,e the proteids,. carbohydrates, and 
fats. 

^6. Describe the proteids. 

The proteids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxy- 
gen, nitrogen, sulphur and sometimes a little phosphorus. 
They do not diffuse through animal membranes easily, 
are coagulable, and putrefy when moist or warm. Pro- 



i84 ^ SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

teid elements are the essential constituent of the tissues 
of the body. As they alone of the organic foods contain 
nitrogen, they are absolutely necessary in the food sup- 
ply. The principal foods which contain proteids are lean 
meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, and such vegetables as 
peas, beans, etc. As the proteids also contain other im- 
portant constituent elements of the body, man can sub- 
sist upon proteid food alone, with the addition of water 
and mineral salts. 

^j. Describe the carbohydrates and fats. 

The carbohydrates are compounds of oxygen, hydrogen 
and carbon. The chief carbohydrate foods are the 
grains, vegetables, and fruits. 

The fats contain the same elements as the carbo- 
hydrates but in different proportions. The chief fats 
are butter and cream, fat of meats, and oil. Both car- 
bohydrates and fats enter into the formation of tissue 
but neither is absolutely essential to the renewal of 
tissue, and as they contain no nitrogen the body cannot 
be sustained upon them alone. Their great use is in the 
acquirement and production of bodily energy and heat. 

/j-S. What two inorganic substances are essential to life. 
Water and mineral salts, especially sodium chloride or 
common salt. 

^p. Why is a jnixed diet necessary ? 

As no one food contains all the needed material, in the 
right proportion, for the sustenance of life, a mixed diet 
is essential. 

^o. Why is food cooked ? 

Cooking renders food more palatable and more di- 
gestible. 

51. What is the food value of coffee ? Tea ? Cocoa ? 
Coffee and tea are not positive foods, but in moderate 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 185 

quantities stimulate dormant energies, retard waste, and 
assist in digestion. 

Cocoa contains fatty matter, albumen and starch. It 
is not so stimulating as coffee and tea, but is a true food 
of a very nutritious character. 

^2. Why is food necessary ? 

Various parts of the body are worn out by constant 
use. They are built up again by the blood, and the 
blood is renewed by the food. 

5J. By what processes is the body nourished? 

In order to nourish the body, food must pass through 
certain preparatory changes, as follows: (1) Digestion, 
by which the food is reduced to a liquid state; (2) Ab- 
sorption, by which the digested food is taken into the 
blood ; (3) Circulation, by which the enriched blood is 
carried to various parts of the system; (4) Assimilation, 
by which each tissue selects from the blood the materials 
necessary for its nutrition. 

5^. What are the organs of digestion ? 

The alimentary canal and its accessory parts are the 
organs of digestion. 

This canal consists of the mouth, pharynx, esoph- 
agus, stomach and intestines. Connected with it are 
structures known as glands which assist in its functions; 
as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas. 

55. Define mucous membrane. 

All the internal cavities or passages of the body which 
communicate with the external air are lined with a thin 
layer of tissue called the mucous membraite. This mem- 
brane secreets a fluid called mucus, which serves to keep 
it moist. 

^6. What is the structure and functio7i of a gland? 



i86 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

A gland is an organ which consists of follicles and 
ducts interwoven with connective tissue, nerves, and 
blood vessels. Its office is to separate some particular 
substance from the blood and to transform it into a new 
substance known as the gland secretion. 

57. What organs are contained in the mouth ? 

The mouth contains the teeth, tongue, and palate. ^ 

^8. Describe the teeth. 

The teeth are hard bone-like structures attached to 
the jaw. The parts of the teeth are the crown and the 
fangs or roots. The bulk of the tooth is a substance 
called dentine. The crown is covered with a very hard 
enamel, and the roots have over them a bony cement 
which fastens them to the fang socket. Nerves and 
blood vessels enter the tooth to the pulp cavity by a 
hole in the tip of the root. In the adult there are eight 
teeth in each half of both jaws; two incisors, one canine, 
two bicuspids, and three molars. 

5p. What care do the teeth require ? 

The teeth should be thoroughly brushed at least twice 
a day that all particles of food may be removed. No 
metallic substances should be used in picking the teeth. 
It is prudent to have the teeth examined by a competent 
dentist about once a year, that any cavities may be 
discovered and filled. 

60. What do human teeth indicate as to the proper food 
for man ? 

The teeth of the human being are adapted to the 
mastication of both animal and vegetable food. The 
first appearance of the teeth indicates that the child may 
now take other than liquid food, while the cutting of 
the permanent teeth shows that food which requires 
chewing is now a proper diet. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 187 

61. What is the tongue ? The palate ? 

The tongue is a movable muscular organ, covered with 
a mucous membrane in which are situated the organs of 
the sense of taste. 

The uvula, or soft palate, is a curtain-like muscular 
flap which partly separates the mouth and pharynx. 

62. Tell of the location and function of tJie salivary 
glands. 

There are three pairs of salivary glands — i\iQ parotid, 
just back of the angle of the jaw under the ear; the sub- 
maxilary, under the angle of the jaw ; the sublingual, in 
front of the submaxilary. These glands secrete a viscid, 
watery, alkaline fluid called saliva. Its active element 
is ptyalin which has the power of changing starch to 
sugar. 

Saliva serves to keep the mouth moist, helps in the 
process of mastication, develops the peculiar taste of 
certain substances, and renders the food more susceptible 
to the action of other digestive fluids. 

6j. Define pharynx, epiglottis, esophagus. 

The pharynx is the cavity connecting the mouth with 
the esophagus. 

The epiglottis is a fold of tissue which extends from 
the walls of the larynx and shuts it off from the pharynx 
while food is being swallowed. 

The esophagus is a muscular tube which runs along 
the spine from the throat to the stomach, and through 
which the food is carried. 

64.. Give the structure and function of the stomach. 

The stomach is an oval, muscular sac, lying just be- 
neath the diaphragm, with the large end to the left. The 
outer coat of the stomach is the peritoneum. The inner, 
or mucous coat secretes an acid fluid called gastric juice. 



i88 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Pepsin is the active element of this secretion. The food 
enters the stomach from the esophagus through the 
cardiac orifice^ and is broken into small particles and 
mixed with the gastric juice by the muscular action of 
the stomach. This pulpy mass is called chyme, and it 
passes from the stomach, through an opening called the 
pylorus, into the small intestine. 

6^. What are the intestines and their work? The 
mesentery ? 

The intestines are a long tube lying in coils in the 
abdomen, below the liver and stomach. Folds of con- 
nective tissue known as the mesentery support these coils 
and carry blood to the intestines. After the chyme 
enters the small intestine it is mixed with bile and pan- 
creatic juice. This emulsion-like liquid, called chyle, is 
now absorbed by the lacteals and carried to the blood 
stream. The unabsorbed portions of food pass through 
the ileo-ccecal valve into the large intestine. Here more 
food and most of the water is absorbed, while the residue 
passes into the rectum from which it is expelled as 
faeces. 

66. Describe the pancreas and liver. 

T\i& pancreas is a large fleshy gland near the stomach. 
It secretes the viscid, alkaline pancreatic juice. This 
fluid acts principally upon the fats. 

The liver is the largest gland in the body. It secretes 
a yellowish-green fluid called bile. This fluid is stored 
in the gall bladder, a pear shaped bag attached to 
the under side of the liver. Bile assists in digesting 
fats and prevents the decomposition of food in the in- 
testines. 

6y. What is portal circulation ? 

Blood is carried to the liver by the aorta and the portal 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 189 

vein, — the latter being formed by the union of veins 
from the stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen. 
This vein divides and subdivides into capillaries ramify- 
ing the liver. These reunite and form the hepatic vein 
which carries the blood into the inferior vena cava. 
Tnis process is cdHXtd. portal circidation. 

68. Give the action of the different digestive liquids. 
Saliva acts on starch, gastric juice on the proteids, 
and bile on fats, while pancreatic juice acts on all three. 

6g. Define lacteals, lymphatics, thoracic duct. 

Lacteals are small absorbent vessels peculiar to the 
small intestine. They absorb the chyle, which they are 
especially adapted to receive. The lacteals unite, form- 
ing the thoracic duct, which carries these emulsified fats 
directly to the subclavian vein. 

The lymphatics are delicate vessels which carry lymph. 
This is a colorless fluid resembling blood plasma which 
undergoes renovation in the lymphatic system and is 
carried into the blood to be wholly purified. 

70. What is the spleen ? 

The spleen is a large gland-like organ situated on the 
left side of the abdomen, just inside the lower ribs. In 
its spongy tissue are found red and white blood 
corpuscles, and other cells. The white corpuscles pass 
into the blood, while the red corpuscles are probably 
collected and broken up here. 

The spleen is supplied by an artery, and its vein 
empties into the portal system, 

yi. What are the location and function of the kidneys ? 

The two kidneys are located in the loins behind the 
intestines, on either side of the spinal column. They are 
about four inches long and shaped like a bean. The 
function of the kidneys is to purify the blood by the 



I90 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

excretion of a poisonous substance called urea, and other 
waste products. The watery fluid secreted by the kid- 
neys is carried by two tubes, called ureters, to the 
bladder. 

y2. What is circulation ? Name the organs of cir- 
culation. 

The flow of the blood to and from various parts of 
the body is called circulation. The organs of circula- 
tion are the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. 

J J. Describe the heart. 

The heart is a hollow muscular organ. It lies in the 
thorax, just above the diaphragm, between the two 
lungs, and chiefly on the left side of the body. It is en- 
closed in a fibrous sac called t\iQ pericardiuin. The lining 
of the interior of the heart is the endocardium. The 
heart is divided into four cavities — two auricles^ left and 
right, and two ventricles^ left and right. Between these 
cavities on either side are valves — those between the 
cavities on the left side are the mitral valves^ those be- 
tween the ones on the right are the tricuspid valves. At 
the entrance to both the aorta and the pulmonary artery 
are found the semilunar valves. The heart is nourished 
by arteries from the aorta known as the coronary 
arteries. 

j/f.. Define arteries. Veins. 

Arteries are cylindrical, firm, elastic canals which 
carry pure blood to all parts of the body. The aorta, 
the largest artery, sends branches to all organs of the 
body. These branches as they divide, grow smaller and 
more numerous, terminating in small hair-like vessels 
called capillaries. These vessels give origin to the 
system of veins which unite with each other and finally 
form two great veins, the superior vena cava and the in- 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 191 

ferior vena cava, through which all the veins of the 
general circulation communicate with the heart. 

75. Describe the circulation of the blood. 

The impure blood, collected by the small veins from 
various parts of the body, is poured through the venag 
cavas into the right auricle. Passing the tri-cuspid valves, 
this venous blood enters the right ventricle, from where 
it is sent by the pulmonary artery to the lungs, distrib- 
uted through their capillaries and purified. This pure 
blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins, 
passes through the left auricle, over the mitral valves 
into the left ventricle. From here it is forced into the 
aorta and is thence carried by the arteries to all parts of 
the body. Passing from the capillaries of the arteries 
into the veins, it is again returned to the venae cavae 
thus completing its journey. 

y6. Of what is blood composed? 

Blood consists of two portions, the liquid plasma, and 
the globules or corpuscles. The plasma is composed of 
water, fatty and albuminous matter, salts, and some 
organic substances. The corpuscles are of two kinds, 
the red and white. The red corpuscles are smaller than 
the white and more numerous. They are disc-shaped, 
while the white corpuscles are globular in form. 

77. What are the uses of the blood? 

The blood is the great provider and purifier of the 
body. Through the agency of the plasma new materials 
are carried to the tissues and worn-out particles of 
matter removed, while the corpuscles convey the life- 
giving oxygen and carry away the carbonic acid. 

J 8. Describe the lungs. 

The lungs, two in number, are located in the thoracic 
cavity. The lung substance is soft, elastic and spongy. 



192 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

and is filled with minute cells containing air. The lungs 
and the cavity in which they are situated, are covered 
with a very smooth, delicate membrane called the pleura. 
The lungs are the chief organs of respiration. 

yg. What changes take place in the air and in the blood 
during respiration ? 

The inspired air is robbed of a large part of its oxygen 
which is taken up by the blood. In turn the air acquires 
various matters which have been brought to the air cells 
by the circulation. Hence the expired air is charged 
with carbonic acid gas and other noxious materials. 
Certain changes also occur in the blood during respira- 
tion. In its passage through the tissues the blood loses 
oxygen and gains carbonic acid, while in the lungs it 
gains oxygen and loses its carbonic acid. 

80. Name the air passages and their functions. 

The air passages are the interior of the nose, the 
mouth, pharynx, lar^mx, trachae, and the bronchial 
tubes. These air passages not only form a transit for 
the air but they cleanse, warm, and moisten it before it 
reaches the lungs. 

81. Describe and give special use of the larynx. 

The larynx consists of a number of cartilages which 
together form a chamber in the air tube between the 
mouth and lungs. The vocal cords are stretched across 
this chamber and the air passing over them causes them 
to vibrate. The parts of the larynx are the thyroid, 
cricoid, and two arytenoid cartilages. 

82. Hozv are voice sounds produced? 

Voice sounds are produced by the vocal cords and the 
muscles of the larynx. 

8j. How are the vital processes of the body controlled 
and regu la ted? 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 193 

The special activity of all parts of the body is con- 
trolled and regulated by the action of the nervous system. 

8^. What are the organs of the nervoits sytem ? 
The organs of the nervous system are the brain, 
spinal cord, and nerves. 

8^, Locate a^id describe the brain. 

The brain occupies the cavity of the skull. It consists 
of three parts: the cerebrum^ cerebelliun and medulla 
oblongata. 

The cerebrum, which is the largest, occupies the 
upper, front, middle and back part of the cranial cavity; 
the cerebellum fills the lower and back space of the cav- 
ity; and the medulla oblongata lies below and in front of 
the cerebellum and is attached to the spinal cord. The 
outer covering of the brain is a strong membrane called 
the dura mater. Under this is the arachnoid inembrane^ 
while closely adherent to the brain and spinal cord, and 
dipping down into the furrows, is the third covering, the 
pia mater. 

86. What are the offices of the various parts of the 
brain ? 

Each hemisphere of the brain is connected with and 
has control of the opposite side of the body. 

The cerebrum is the seat of thought, emotion, sen- 
sation, and the will. The cerebellum regulates voluntary 
motion. From the medulla oblongata arise most of the 
cranial nerves and it is also the center of control for res- 
piration, circulation and some other processes. 

8j. What are nerves ? How classified as to their 
function ? 

Nerves are cords composed of white matter extending 
to all the tissues of the body and connecting all organs 
with the brain or spinal cord. They are classified as 
motor and sensorv nerves. 



194 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

88. Describe the sympathetic nervous system. 

The sympathetic system of nerves consists of a double 
chain of ganglia on each side of the spinal column, and 
of scattered ganglia in the head, neck, and abdomen. 
These ganglia are connected with each other and with 
the cerebro-spinal system by sensitive fibers. This 
sympathetic system controls for most part the involun- 
tary processes of the body. 

8g. Describe the spinal cord. 

The spinal cord is a continuation of the medulla ob- 
longata, and fills the cavity of the spinal canal in the 
vertebral column. It consists of gray and white matter, 
and from it thirty-one pairs of nerves are given off. 

po. Name the special senses and their particular organs. 

The special senses are sight, hearing, touch, taste and 
smell. To these may be added the sense of temperature, 
of pressure, and the muscular sense. 

The eye is the organ of sight; the ear, of hearing; 
the sense of touch is located in the skin and some mucous 
membranes; the tongue and palate are the organs of 
taste; the organs of the sense of smell are located in the 
mucous membrane of the nasal cavities. 

gi. Describe the structure of the eye. 

The eyeball is spherical in form and has the segment 
of a smaller sphere set upon its front portion. It is 
about an inch in diameter. 

The larger part of the eyeball has three coats: the 
sclerotic which is white; the choroid which is dark and 
closely adherent to the sclerotic coat ; the retina or inner 
coat, which is a delicate membrane containing an expan- 
sion of the optic nerve. 

The small spherical segment in the front of the eye is 
the cornea. Just inside of this and seen through it, is a 
continuation of the choroid coat, called the iris, with a 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 195 

Circular opening in the center known as the pupil. Be- 
tween the cornea and the iris is a clear watery substance 
the aqueous humor. Back of the pupil is the crystalline 
lens, while between the lens and the retina is a clear 
fluid substance called the vitreous humor. 

Q2. How is the eye protected? 

Each eyeball rests in a bony cavity and is partially 
surrounded by cushions of fat. The eyebrows which 
grow from the brows that project above the eyes, pre- 
vent perspiration from flowing into the eyes. In front 
of each socket are two movable curtains or eyelids, 
which, when closed, cover the eye. Both lids have eye- 
lashes upon their edges which screen the eyes, and give 
warning of approach of insects, dust, etc. At the outer 
side of each socket is the lachrymal gland which secretes 
the tears. This gland constantly secretes a watery sub- 
stance which is spread over the eyeball by the lids, thus 
keeping the eye in a moist and transparent condition. 

pj. Explain the tnechanism of sight. 

The eyeball is moved by six muscles which turn it in 
all directions. 

Light enters the eye through the cornea, is refracted 
by the aqueous humor, crystalline lens, and vitreous 
humor, and the rays focused upon the retina where a 
small inverted image of the object is formed. These 
rays of light stimulate the elements in the retina, and 
the nerve impulses, thus started, pass along the fibers of 
the optic nerve to the brain and we have the sensation of 
sight. 

p^. What is said of the structure and location of the 
ear ? 

The ear is the most complicated of all the structures 
which receive external impressions. It is composed of 
numerous small and delicate parts. Most of these are 



196 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

located in the cavity of the temporal bone where they are 
well protected. From their positions the three parts of 
the ear are called the external ear, middle ear, and in- 
ternal ear. 

P5. Describe the structure and function of the outer ear. 

The external ear consists of a shell-shaped cartilage 
covered with skin. This shell collects the sound. From 
the outer portion a canal extends inward. A membrane, 
called the tympanum^ stretches across the inner end of 
this canal shutting it off from the middle ear. This 
auditory canal has many coarse stiff hairs and numerous 
wax-producing glands, all of which tend to prevent the 
accumulation of dust or the inroads of insects. 

g6. Describe the middle ear. 

The middle ear is an air cavity and is connected with 
the air passages of the throat by the Eustachian tube. It 
contains a chain of three small bones, the malleus^ incus^ 
and stapes. 

gy. Describe the internal ear. 

The internal ear consists of several complicated cavi- 
ties and tubes which contain a liquid, in which rests the 
nerves. The cavities are known as the vestibule^ the 
cochlea^ and the semi-circular canals. 

g8. How do we hear ? 

Sound waves are collected by the outer ear. Passing 
down the auditory canal they strike the tympanum. 
This vibrates and sets in motion the little bones, and 
they, in turn, communicate this motion to the fluid of 
the internal ear. These impressions are communicated 
to the auditory nerve, which carries them to the brain. 

pp. What is the prime condition of good health ? 

In the absence of structural derangements in the other 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 197 

organs, the proper development and healthy action of the 
brain and nerves is the prime condition of good health, 

100. What is disease ? 

Disease is a disorder of the structure or functions of 
the body. 

loi. What are some of the causes of disease ? 

Disease may arise from some mechanical injury, from 
exposure to cold and wet, from improper food, over work, 
insufficient rest, or the taking of such substances as 
alcohol, tobacco, and other narcotics, which poison the 
body. 

102. How may disease be prevented? 

The first preventive against disease is the observance 
of the laws of health. A knowledge of these laws is the 
result of the study of the body. Briefly these laws are: 
to eat plenty of good food; to eat, work, and sleep 
regularly; to breathe pure air; to take plenty of outdoor 
exercise; to avoid all substances which can injure the 
body; to avoid exposure to cold or wet or to contagious 
and infectious diseases. 

10^. What are the most common com^jnunicable diseases ? 
Tuberculosis or consumption, pneumonia, diphtheria, 
typhoid fever, scarlet fever, measles, smallpox. 

lo/j.. What is a narcotic ? Name principal narcotics. 

A narcotic is a substance which directly induces sleep, 
allaying sensibility and blunting the senses, and which 
in large quantities produces complete insensibility. 
Direct narcotics either produce some specific effect upon 
the cerebral gray matter, or have a very decided action 
on the blood supply of the brain. 

Opium, belladonna, chloroform, alcohol, nicotine are 
some of the chief narcotic poisons. 



198 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

10^. How is alcohol produced? 

Alcohol is the product of fermentation, it being one of 
the bodies resulting from the decomposition of sugar. 
It is an active agent in all malt, fermented and distilled 
liquors. The chemical action of alcohol is to arrest or 
impede change in organic substances. 

1 06. Give some of the effects of alcohol upon various 
parts of the body. 

Alcohol retards digestion, develops an abnormal 
growth of the connective tissue of the liver, causes fatty- 
degeneration of the heart, impoverishes the blood, and 
decreases muscular energy. 

707. Upon what part of the body are the effects of alcohol 
most harmful? 

The physiological effects of alcohol upon other parts of 
the body are quite subsidiary to its effects upon the ner- 
vous system. Its first effect upon this sytsem is to pro- 
duce a sense of exhilaration. This leads to over-exertion 
and hence over-fatigue. It also deadens the sensibilities, 
weakens the power for genuine brain activity, deranges 
the whole mental machinery, destroys the harmony be- 
tween the mental and moral powers, impairs the will 
power, and lowers the moral tone of the individual. 

108. What is the poison in tobacco ? What are some of 
its effects ? 

Nicotine is the exhilarating agent in tobacco. It is a 
powerful emetic, diminishes the contractile force of the 
muscles, weakens the action of the heart, diminishes the 
desire for food, impairs the will-power, weakens the 
memory, blunts the finer moral feelings, and decreases 
the powers of abstract thought. 

log. Why is the use of tobacco especially harmful to the 
young ? 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 199 

The habitual use of tobacco by the young will hinder 
growth of brain, muscle and nerve, and will so impair 
the vital energies of the body as to weaken them for the 
entire life. Boys who smoke suffer from headache, con- 
fusion of intellect, loss of memory, impaired power of 
attention, lassitude, feeble will-power, and many kindred 
mental evils to say nothing of impaired physical powers. 

no. Name the commonest principles of hygiene that 
every one should practice. 

The body should be kept clean by frequent baths, and 
changes of clothing, pure air should be breathed and 
draughts avoided, clothing suitable to the climate and 
season worn, healthful food eaten and pure water drank, 
and unnecessary exposure to contagious diseases avoided. 

III. What measures of a hygienic nature have been in- 
troduced into modern life^ and what has been the effect ? 

Abundance of pure water is furnished wherever people 
live close together, sewer systems have been installed, 
halls and other audience rooms are provided with ven- 
tilation, contagious diseases have been studied and per- 
sons infected with them isolated, vaccination insisted 
upon, and boards of health, established everywhere and 
clothed with power, have rendered efficient service in 
enforcing stringent laws. The result has been the prac- 
tical extermination of many dread diseases, and the con- 
trol of others, while the death rate has been greatly 
lessened. 




CHAPTER IX. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

iHE study of geography has undergone a great 
many changes in recent years and no subject of 
the school curriculum has demanded greater at- 
tention. The former conception of geography regarded 
it as a description of the earth's surface. Chief atten- 
tion was given to rivers, bays, lakes, mountains, islands, 
etc., as facts to be located and remembered. The pupil 
hunted up places located on the map, while the teacher 
read the questions from the book and determined whether 
or not the answers fitted. 

A later and truer conception of geography considers 
the earth as the home of man, and with man in his 
relation to his physical environment as the central 
thought. "According to the definition of geography, — ■ 
which treats of the relation between man and the earth, 
— a hill or lake is worthy of mention only because it 
bears a relation to us, the men upon the earth; consid- 
ered by itself it is not a part of geography."* If man 
in his relation to his environment is the central idea it 
becomes clear that home geography, the things immed- 
iately at hand, must be studied first. 

The report of the Committee of Fifteen, which has 
done so much to clarify educational theories and shape 
practice, puts the case as follows: "The child commences 
with what is nearest to his interests, and proceeds grad- 
ually toward what is to be studied for its own sake. It 

*Tarr and McMurry's Geography, Macmillan, New York. 



GEOGRAPHY 201 

is therefore a mistake to suppose that the first phase of 
geograph}?- presented to the child should be the process 
of continent formation. He must begin with the natural 
differences of climate and lands and waters and obstacles 
that separate peoples, and study the methods by which 
man strives to equalize or overcome these differences by 
industry and commerce, and make it possible for each to 
share in the productions of all. The industrial and com- 
mercial idea is therefore the first central idea in the 
study of geography in the elementary schools. It leads 
directly to the natural elements of difference in climate, 
soil, and productions, and also to those in race, religion, 
political status, and occupations of the inhabitants, with 
a view to explain the grounds and reasons for this 
counter-process of civilization which struggles to over- 
come the differences. Next comes the deeper inquiry 
into the process of continent formation, the physical 
struggle between the process of upheaving or upbuilding 
of continents and that of their obliteration by air and 
water; the explanation of mountains, valleys, the plains, 
volcanic action, the winds, the rain distribution. But 
the study of cities, their location, the purposes they serve 
as collecting, manufacturing, and distributing centers, 
leads most directly to the immediate purpose of geogra- 
phy in the elementary school." In this statement we 
have a broad and comprehensive view of the work to be 
undertaken in geography and it quite accords with the 
definition that geography is the study of the earth as 
the home of man. 

The plan of geographical study is admirably outlined 
by Dr. Charles McMurry as follows:* "In this outward 
movement from the home there are four distinct stages: 
(a) Home geography, with its excursions and varied 
study of local topography, occupations, and social life. 

^"Special Method in Geography," p. i6, Macmillan. 



202 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

(b) The leading topics of the United States and North 
America. This is a very interesting field of broad and 
varied studies, illustrating almost all phases of geograph- 
ical knowledge. (c) The important phases of European 
geography. While Europe is relatively a small part of 
the world it has a greater number of valuable and 
instructive geographical topics than any other continent, 
due to the varieties of its physical structure, the many 
distinctly different nationalities it exhibits, and the 
higher degree of excellence attained in the arts of life, 
(d) The movement from Europe outward into the world- 
whole, — Asia, Africa, South America, Australia, and the 
larger physical and commercial aspects of the world- 
whole." 

Here we have a suggestive plan based upon sound 
educational principles which may serve as a guide to the 
teacher in his work in geography. An important feature 
of home geography will be the field trips in which the 
material is studied first-hand. In the olden time the 
child was taught that **a river is a stream of water flow- 
ing through the land," but he was not taken out to study 
the river or stream close by, and so it was with the 
other features of geography. An excursion to a stream 
of water, to a hill, or to a factory will not only prove of 
deep interest at the time, but will also furnish material 
for profitable instruction for many days following. 

A proper conception of geography will lead the teacher 
to lay stress upon the products of the soil, and of the 
mill; upon commerce and railway and ocean routes; 
upon the reasons for the founding of cities at particular 
localities rather than somewhere else; upon the effect of 
climate; upon the foods and occupations of men, upon 
the natural resources; upon the government and the 
religion of the people. Incidentally while learning these 
things the child will fix all the necessary data as to 



GEOGRAPHY 203 

places, boundaries, and other geographical material. He 
will also easily and naturally correlate that material with 
other subjects of the school course. This conception of 
geography properly carried out will make it one of the 
most interesting and profitable subjects of the curricu- 
lum. 

I desire to call special attention to Dr. McMurry's 
book on "Special Method in Geography," from which 
quotation is made above. In this book the reader 
will find not only the method of teaching geography fully 
treated, but also an elaborate course of study in 
geography for each of the eight grades. There is also a 
fine bibliography of works on this subject for the use 
of pupils and teachers. 

Questions and Answers. 

1. What is geography ? 

Geography is the study of the earth as the home of 
mankind. From it we learn of the building of this home, 
of its structure, furnishings and equipments, and of the 
life of its inhabitants. 

2. What is the form of the earth? 

The form of the earth is that of a sphere slightly flat- 
tened at its poles. 

So small a part of the earth's surface is visible at a 
time that the curvature of its surface is not apparent. 
Several proofs and illustrations may be given to show 
that it is spherical in form. 

(1) The change in appearance of approaching and re- 
ceding vessels on the ocean. 

(2) The change in the position of the stars, in going 
from one pole to the other. 

(3) The circular shadow cast by the earth in an eclipse. 



204 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

(4) The many routes of travel and communication 
which extend around the earth in all directions. 

J. Give the dimensions of the earth. 
Its axis (the shortest diameter) is 7,900 miles long. 
Its greatest circumference (the equator) is 24,900 
miles long. 

Its surface contains 196,900,000 square miles. 

^. How many and what motions has tJie earth ? 
Two. It rotates upon its axis and revolves around 
the sun. 

5. Why is the rotation of the earth important ? 

The earth rotates upon its axis, from west to east, re- 
quiring twenty-four hours for one rotation. This period 
of time is called a day. The sun lights but one half of the 
earth's surface at a time,but by this rotation of the earth 
all parts are illuminated at some time during a day, and 
all parts are also in darkness during a portion of this 
period of rotation. The time when darkness prevails is 
called night. This is followed by a period of illumina- 
tion called day. 

6. How is a clock related to rotation ? 

Clocks are machines which indicate the speed of rota- 
tion. In most clocks the hour hand moves twice around 
the dial plate during a single rotation of the earth. 

y. What are the chief directions^ and how may they he 
found? 

The direction in which the earth always rotates is 
called east^ from a word which means morning. The 
direction opposite to this is west, which means evening. 
North is the direction toward that end of the earth's 
axis, called the north pole, and soutJi is the direction 
toward the opposite end of the earth's axis, called the 
south pole. 



GEOGRAPHY 205 

(1) If a person faces the rising sun, the north will be 
toward his left, the south to his right, and the west back 
of him. 

(2) From the polar star which indicates the north, 
other directions can be found. 

(3) By the use of the compass any direction may be 
determined. 

8. What is the equator ? What determines its location ? 

The equator is an imaginary line drawn round the 
earth from east to west half-way between the poles. 

The rotation of the earth fixes the position of the poles 
of the earth and from these definite points the equator is 
located. 

g. Explain what is 7nea,nt by parallels^ latitude^ me- 
ridians^ longitude. 

Other east and west lines are supposed to be drawn 
around the earth above and below the equator and 
parallel to it. These lines are called parallels and their 
distance from the equator is called latitude. Imaginary 
lines are supposed to connect the north .and south poles, 
crossing the equator at right angles. These lines are 
called meridians. One of the meridians (usually that of 
Greenwich, England) is called ih^ prime meridian. The 
distance of a meridian east or west of this prime meridian 
is called longitude. 

10. How may the exact location of a plaxe on the earth's 
surface be described? 

By giving its latitude and longitude. 

11. How are Icttitude and longitude measured? 

The east and v/est lines are circles. The north and 
south lines are semi-circles. To these, circular measure 
may be applied in reckoning distances. Hence we num- 
ber 90° (or one-fourth of a circle) of latitude from the 



2o6 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

equator to either pole, and 180° (or one-half of a circle) 
of longitude, east or west from the prime meridian. 

12. What determines the length of a year ? 

The year is the period of the earth's revolution around 
the sun. 

/J. What are the results of this second motion of the 
earth ? 

The various positions which the earth occupies with 
reference to the sun while making this revolution, to- 
gether with the inclination of its axis, causes the vari- 
ation in the length of day and night and the changes of 
the seasons. 

I /J.. What are the equinoxes and solstices ? 

On March 21, the sun's rays fall vertically upon the 
equator and reach both poles. The days and nights are 
equal. This is the beginning of spring in the northern 
hemisphere, and of autumn in the southern hemisphere, 
and is called the vernal equinox. 

June 21, the sun's rays are vertical over the Tropic of 
Cancer, and reach all the region within the Arctic Cir- 
cle but do not light any of the region in the Antarctic 
Circle. This is the summer solstice^ the beginning of 
the northern summer and southern winter. At this 
time there is the greatest inequality between the days 
and nights. 

About September 22, occurs the autumnal equinox^ 
when the position of the sun's rays is the same as at the 
vernal equinox. This is the beginning of autumn north 
of the equator, and of spring south of it. 

December 21, the rays of the sun shine vertically on the 
Tropic of Capricorn, the Arctic region is in darkness, 
and the Antarctic region is illumined. This is the 
wifiter solstice^ the time of the shortest days and the be- 



GEOGRAPHY 207 

ginning of winter in the northern hemisphere, and the 
season of long days and summer in the southern. 

75. What are the tropics and polar circles ? 

The parallels 23}^°, north and south, mark the farthest 
points from the equator, upon which the sun's rays fall 
vertically. When either of these points is reached the 
vertical rays recede toward the equator. Hence, these 
points are called tropics or turning points. The Tropic 
of Cancer is 23>^° north of the equator, the Tropic of 
Capricorn, 23>^° south of the equator. 

The parallels 23}^° from either pole inclose the region 
of complete darkness and illumination, and are called re- 
spectively, the Arctic Circle, and the Antarctic Circle. 

16. What are zones ? 
Zones are heat belts. 

77. Name and locate the zones. 

In the region between the tropics the rays of the sun 
are always vertical somewhere, and it is very warm 
there. Hence this is called the torrid or hot zone. 

Within the polar circles lies a region which is not 
reached at all times by the rays of the sun, and such rays 
as do fall are slanting and carry very little heat. These 
regions are called the frigid^ or cold zones. The north 
frigid zone lies within the Arctic Circle, and the south 
frigid zone, within the Antarctic Circle. 

Between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer in 
the northern hemisphere, and the Antarctic Circle and 
the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemipshere, lie 
broad belts where the temperature is not so extreme as 
in the frigid and torrid zones. These belts are called 
the north and the south temperate zones. 

18. What are the parts of the earth ? 

In a general way, the earth may be considered to be 



2o8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

made up of three parts: (1) the solid earth; (2) the 
partial water covering; (3) the gaseous covering — or 
atmosphere. 

ig. What of the surface of the solid earth ? 

It is supposed that the entire mass of the earth was 
once very hot and that as it cooled some parts shrank 
faster than others, thus making its surface very irregu- 
lar. These irregularities have been increased by vol- 
canic upheavals, and by the action of various elements 
and forces. 

20. Into what parts is the surface of the earth divided? 
The deep depressions between these irregular masses 

of the solid earth are filled with salt water which forms 
the sea. The elevations which protrude above these 
bodies of water are called the land. Hence the surface 
of the earth is composed of land and water. 

21. What is a plateau f 

Any broad region of elevation is called a plateau. 

22. What is meant by the continental plateau ? How 
is it divided? 

The land mass of the globe may be considered as form- 
ing a great plateau, and upon this is found all the conti- 
nents, hence it is called the continental plateau. 

This plateau is divided into three continents called the 
Eastern, Western, and Australian Continents. The first 
contains the grand divisions of Asia, Africa, and Europe; 
the second embraces North and South America, while 
the third is the island continent of Australia. 

2j. Define island. Archipelago. Isthmus. Peninsula. 

An island is a tract of land surrounded by water, and 
smaller than a continent. 

An archipelago is a group of islands. 



GEOGRAPHY 209 

An isthmus is a narrow neck of land connecting two 
larger bodies of land. 

A peninsula is a portion of land nearly surrounded by 
water. 

2/1-. Define and give examples of the two classes of 
islands. 

Continental islands are those which lie near the conti- 
nents and seem to be a part of the great continental 
plateau. The British Isles belong to this class. 

Oceanic islands are those which lie far from the shores 
of the continents and seem to have no connection with 
them. The Hawaiian Islands may be classed in this 
division. 

^5. How is the water surface of the globe divided? 

The water surface of the globe is divided into five 
oceans; the Antarctic Ocean, lying about the south pole, 
the Indian, the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean extending 
northward between the continents, and the Arctic Ocean, 
which lies around the north pole. 

26. Define lowlands. Highlands. 

Those parts of the land which are below an average 
height of about half a mile, are called lowlands. All parts 
above this height are highlands. 

2j. Where are the great highland and lowland regions 
of the world? 

The great highland regions of the world lie on that side 
of the continental plateau which is toward the Indian and 
the Pacific oceans. The Atlantic and the Arctic oceans are 
bordered by broad lowlands, which are drained by great 
rivers, and broken by a very few small, and disconnected 
highlands. 

28. What of the sinking and the rising coasts ? 



210 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The coast lines of the continents are constantly chang- 
ing, owing to change in the elevation of the land. 

A sinking coast, causes the sea to creep up into the 
valleys, forming gulfs, bays, fiords or estuaries. Such a 
coast is very irregular. 

The rising of a coast usually gives it a comparatively 
regular and even coast line. 

2g. Define inountain^ mountain range^ and mountain 
system. 

By the upheaval of the land many portions of rock and 
rock folds have been left projecting high above the sur- 
rounding country. These projections are called moun- 
tains. When this projection makes a single line of some 
length it is called a range. A series of ranges form a 
mountain chain or system. 

JO. What is a volcano ? An earthquake ? 

In many parts of the world melted rock, or lava, is 
forced up through crevices in the rocks, forming vol- 
canoes. These eruptions of volcanoes are often accom- 
panied by violent explosions which jar the earth's crust. 
Such jars are also caused by upheavals of the land, and 
are called earthquakes. 

J/. What is erosion ? 

The rocks are constantly subjected to the action of 
winds and water. This wearing away and breaking up 
of the rocks is called erosion. 

J2. What is detritus ? Soil ? Talus ? 

By the action of the elements — winds, water, cold, 
and heat — the surface of the land is being constantly 
broken up. These particles of rock form what is called 
detritus. 

This detritus mixed with decaying animal and vege- 
table matter forms soil. 



GEOGRAPHY 211 

The soil, acted upon by various forces moves down the 
slopes and forms a broad apron of detritus at the foot of 
a hill or cliff, thus making it merge gradually into the 
plain. This deposit is called a talus. 

jj. Define evaporation. How does it effect the purity 
of water f 

Evaporation is the changing of water from its liquid 
form to vapor. When water evaporates the vapor is 
pure, as all sediment and impurities are left behind. 

j^. Explain the formation of dew^ f'^ost^ fog, clouds, 
rain, and snow. 

Warm air will contain more vapor than cool air. When 
the vapor-laden warm air comes in contact with a cooler 
surface the moisture is condensed and is precipitated in 
small drops called dew. 

If the surface which the warmer air touches is very 
cold, this dew is crystallized and becomes /r^^^. 

When the air contains so much vapor that it is visible 
it is called fog. The air as it rises becomes cooler and 
the vapor it contains is formed into clouds. 

If the condensed vapor in the clouds forms particles 
large enough these fall to the earth in drops of rain. 
When the temperature falls to freezing point these drops 
of rain change to delicate white crystals and reach, the 
earth as snow. 

J5. Explain the formation of springs? What are 
geysers f Artesian wells ? 

Much of the water that falls to the earth sinks into the 
ground, often to a considerable depth and is called 
ground water. 

Very often this water passing through porous rock, 
encounters a less porous bed and flows along this until it 
reaches the air either at the termination of the rock beds, 
as on a hillside, or through a crevice, thus forming a 



212 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

spring. If the water has become heated in its journey, 
hot springs or geysers are formed. Or, if it contains an 
appreciable amount of dissolved mineral matter, it be- 
comes a mineral spri^ig. 

The water-bearing porous rock often lies between 
layers of more impervious rock. If a hole is bored 
through the upper layer of hard rock, the water (especially 
if the rock layers be inclined) will rise through the open- 
ing and form an artificial spring or an artesian well. 

j6. What other formations are due to the action of 
ground water ? 

In the limestone regions, the underground water often 
dissolves the rock leaving great openings, or caves. The 
lime laden water trickling through the roofs of these 
caves, evaporates and forms icicle-like stalactites and 
stalagmites. These sometimes unite and form columns. 

If a part of the roof of this cavern breaks in, a sink-hole 
is formed; while often the entire roof falls, thus forming a 
gorge or valley. 

A part of this roof may remain as a natural bridge. 

Metals are sometimes dissolved by ground water and 
afterward deposited in crevices of the rocks. The vei^is 
thus formed result in some of the richest of mines. 

J/. What is a river system ? 

A spring often becomes the source of a small stream. 
Several of these streams uniting form a river. This 
river, in turn, as it flows toward the sea, is joined by 
other rivers, or tributaries^ and all together form a river 
system. The valley drained by this system is called the 
river basin. 

^8. How are lakes formed? 

A river sometimes spreads out over a broad plain, or 
encounters a barrier of some kind, and thus a lake is 
formed. If the evaporation of this lake causes its sur- 



GEOGRAPHY 213 

face to sink below the level of the river so that it has no 
outlet^ the sediment left by evaporation causes the lake 
to become a salt lake. 

jg. What is a divide ? What are the 7nain slopes of 
the continental plateau f 

Any region from which the land slopes downward in 
opposite directions is called a divide. 

The great highlands of the world form contineittal 
divides separating the plateau into three main slopes: 
(1) the Indian Ocean slope; (2) the Atlantic-Arctic 
slope; (3) the Pacific slope. 

^o. What is a canyon ? Hozv foyjued ? 

All streams carry detritus, and by friction cut their 
valleys deeper. Swift streams wear their channels more 
rapidly than slow ones. Hence the rapid streams of the 
mountains often cut deep narrow valleys with steep sides. 
Such valleys are called canyons. 

4.1. Define and explain the various strea^tn features? 

A stream sometimes encounters a hard layer of rock 
which does not cut away so rapidly as the softer portions 
about it. The water passing over this forms rapids^ or 
if the descent is steep, a cataract. 

If the current of the stream becomes sluggish the 
detritus is deposited and sand bars are formed. When a 
stream which carries a large amount of sediment enters 
the ocean, its current stops and this sediment is deposited 
and a delta is formed. 

/J.2. What are glaciers ? Icebergs ? 

The accumulated ice and snow of the cold regions form 
great sheets, which gradually creep slowly forward 
pressed by the weight of material back of them. These 
are called glaciers. In their movement they excavate 
rock basins, widen and deepen valleys, wear off the hills, 



214 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

and carry great quantities of rocky material. If the 
glacier reaches the sea, portions are broken off and float 
away as icebergs. 

^j. How many and what ^notions has the sea ? 

The sea has three motions; waves, tides, and currents, 

^^. Define and explain each. \ 

Waves are formed by the action \of the wind on the 
water. \ 

Tides are the regular rising and falling of the sea, 
caused by the attraction of the sun and moon. 

Currents are drifts of surface water caused by the 
winds, the unequal heating of the waters of the ocean, 
and the rotation of the earth. 

^5. What are the effects of these motions f Name the 
chief ocean currents. 

The waves and tides wear away the coasts, tending to 
make them more uniform. By these movements of the 
water the coasts are washed and cleansed. 

The ocean currents modify climate, making the ocean 
itself and the neighboring lands either warmer or cooler. 
They keep the waters of the ocean in circulation and 
nourish large numbers of marine animals. They also 
bring food to the coral polyps which exist in the warmer 
parts of the ocean and thus help in the formation of coral 
islands. 

The principal currents of the Atlantic Ocean are the 
Gulf Stream, Labrador Current, and the Brazilian Cur- 
rent. In the Pacific Ocean the chief current is the 
Japanese Current. 

4.6. What shore forms result from the action of the 
waves ^ or from the rising or sinking of coasts ? 

A peninsula^ already described as a body of land almost 
surrounded by water. 



GEOGRAPHY 215 

A strait, which is a body of water connecting two 
larger bodies of water. 

Long, narrow straits called sounds. 

Arms of the sea extending inland and designated as 
gulfs, bays, or seas. 

4.J. What is climate? By what is it affected? 

Climate is the condition of the atmosphere as regards 
temperature, winds, and moisture. 

It is affected by latitude, height above the sea level, 
nearness or remoteness of large bodies of water, winds, 
and ocean currents. 

^8. What are winds ? 

Winds are currents of air in motion. 

^p. What are the principal wind belts ? 

The winds from the temperate zones blow steadily 
toward the equator and are called trade winds. 

The heated air which is displaced by the incoming 
trade winds, rises, and moves away from the equator, 
forming the anti-trade winds. 

Beyond the trade wind belt, in both the northern and 
the southern hemisphere, is a region where the anti-trade 
winds have settled to the surface and blow steadily from 
the west. This is known as the belt of the prevailing 
westerlies. 

Besides the wind belts just mentioned, there are three 
belts of calms. At the heat equator the air rises to a 
great height, producing light, changeable winds or calms. 
Near the tropics where the trades begin to be permanent 
is a region of settling air known as the horse latitudes or 
the tropical calms. 

In the cold regions the stormy polar winds prevail. 

50. What are the uses of winds ? 

Winds disseminate seeds, aid the flight of birds, propel 
sailing vessels, and purify the air. But the greatest use 



2i6 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

of the winds is to carry and distribute moisture over the 
land. 

57. Upon what does the distribtction of plants depend f 
Upon the soil, temperature and moisture. 

^2. Distinguish between forests^ grassy lands ^ tundras^ 
and deserts. 

In the torrid zone are found dense forests of luxuriant 
growth. In the temperate zone the forests are more 
open and consist of both deciduous and evergreen trees. 

In both torrid and temperate zones, where the rainfall 
is not sufficient for a forest growth, are found open 
grassy lands. These are called by the names of prairies, 
steppes, llanos, and pampas. 

Along the Arctic coast of Eurasia and America are 
vast tracts where little or no vegetation is found. These 
are called tundras. 

Some regions, where the rainfall is deficient, support 
little or no veoretation. These are the deserts. 



'b> 



5J. Upon what does the distribution of animal life 
depend ? 

Upon climate, the position of natural barriers, and the 
distribution of plants. 

5^. What is said of the animals of tJie different life 
regions ? 

The largest wild animals are found in the torrid zone. 
The animals with the thickest fur live in the polar regions. 

The animals of the Australian life region belong to a 
low grade of animal life now extinct in all other regions. 
It includes the egg-laying mammals and pouched animals. 

The South American region is noted for its variety of 
animals and especially for its bright plumaged birds. 

The African and Oriental regions are especially noted 
for their flesh-eating animals. 



GEOGRAPHY 217 

There is very little difference between the native ani- 
mals of the Eurasian and the North American region, 
showing that the barrier between these regions has existed 
but a short time. Most of our domestic animals (and 
plants) are descended from the wild life of Eurasia. 

55. Name the races and tell of each. 

Mankind may be divided into three races; the white 
race, the black race, and the yellow race. 

The home of the white race is in Europe, northern 
Africa, and southwestern Asia. Australia and the 
Americas have been settled almost entirely by the people 
of this race. It is the most civilized of the races and 
includes about one-half of the people in the world. There 
are two distinct branches of this race, the A-ryans, which 
have fair or blond complexion, light hair and eyes, and 
are above the average height; the Semitic peoples, 
having a darker skin, dark and often curly hair, and 
black eyes. 

The home of the yellow race is in northern and eastern 
Eurasia, America, and the Pacific islands. The people 
of this race have coarse, straight black hair, deep-set or 
almond-shaped eyes and a yellow or yellowish red skin. 
As a race, they are less civilized than the white race. 
Three types are included in this race; the Mongolians, 
the Malays, and the American Indians and Eskimos. 

Africa and the Australian Islands are the home of the 
least civilized and least numerous of the races — the black 
race. The people of this race have coarse, woolly hair, 
thick protruding lips, and dark brown or black skin. 

^6. What is a nation ? 

A body of people united under one ruler and subject to 
the same general laws, is a nation. 

5/. What is government ? 



2i8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Government is the organized authority which rules a 
nation. 

^8. Name and define the kinds of government. 

A monarchy is a form of government in which the 
ruler generally holds his office for life by virtue of birth. 
There are two kinds of monarchies; in an absolute mon- 
archy, the ruler has unlimited power; in a limited 
monarchy, the laws are made by a representative body 
of the people and the power of the ruler is limited. 

A republic is a form of government in which the peo- 
ple choose their own ruler and also elect a body of men 
to make their laws. 

5p. What are the three great branches of industry ? 
Procuring materials ; transforming materials ; exchang- 
ing and transporting materials. 

60. What is agriculture ? 

Agriculture is raising plants by tilling the soil. 

61. Nam.e some of the most useful plants. 

The grains — wheat, rice, corn, etc. — are the chief food 
plants. 

The tuberous and underground stem plants, as the 
beet, potato, etc 

The sugar producing cane. 

The tea and coffee plants. 

Tobacco and opium, the narcotics. 

The fibrous plants — cotton, flax, and hemp. 

The various kinds of fruits. 

62. What other occupation is closely allied to agriculture ? 
The raising of domestic animals for draught animals, 

but chiefly for food. 

6^. What sea products are most valuable ? 

Fish of such kinds as may be used for food; oysters; 



GEOGRAPHY 219 

seals, which are sought for their fur; whales, which 
furnish oil and whalebone ; sponges, which have many 
commercial uses. 

64.. What are the most valuable forest products ? 

Timber for fuel; lumber for building, etc. ; sap products 
such as rubber, pitch, tar, and resins; dyewoods and 
drugs. 

6s . What is mining? 

Mining is the process of obtaining minerals from the 
earth. 

66. What are the chief minerals and for what used ? 

The most useful minerals are iron, coal, petroleum, 
copper, gold, silver, tin, zinc, lead, and building stones. 

Coal is used for fuel. Iron, for manufacturing. Gold 
and silver are coined into mone}^, and employed in the 
decorative arts. Petroleum, for fuel and illuminating 
purposes. 

d/. What is manufacturing? What are the chief 
manufactures ? 

Manufacturing is the converting of raw material into 
useful and necessary articles. 

The chief manufactures are the making of textiles, 
working of metals, and the preparing and preserving of 
food. 

68. What leads to the exchange of goods ? 

Different places produce different articles, and that all 
may be supplied, goods are exchanged. This exchange 
is called commerce. Trade between parts of the same 
country is domestic commerce \ that between different 
countries i?, foreign commerce, 

6g. What are routes of commerce ? 



220 SEELE V'S Q UESTION BOOK 

Natural routes of commerce are the oceans, lakes, and 
navigable rivers. 

Artificial routes are canals, highways, and railroads. 

yo. Mention some aids to commerce. 

Telegraph and cable lines, telephones, and post office 
service, are valuable aids to commerce. 

yi. In what regions of the world are the great hidtis- 
tries carried on ? 

Generally speaking, the people who occupy the great 
lowland regions are engaged in agriculture. The moun- 
tainous regions contain the mineral wealth of the world. 
Manufacturing is centered in the towns and cities. 
While commerce is carried on between those places which 
have good commercial facilities. 

^2. How do you account for the location of the chief 
towns and cities of the world? 

Commercial interests have determined the location of 
most cities. Good harbors, favorable points on navigable 
rivers and lakes, junctions of railroads, and such consid- 
erations have led to settlements, which have developed 
into towns and cities. 

7J. Locate North Am^erica. 

North America occupies the northern part of the 
western continental plateau. It lies between the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans; it is separated from Asia by Behring 
strait, and joined to South America by the isthmus of 
Panama. It lies in the Torrid, North Temperate, and 
North Frigid zones. 

y^. What are the features of the coast line ? 

The western coast of North America is quite regular, 
being broken only by the gulf and peninsula of California, 
Behring Sea, the Alaskan Peninsula, and a few islands. 



GEOGRAPHY 221 

The northern and eastern shores are deeply indented 
by gulfs and bays and fringed by many large islands, and 
peninsulas. The most important of these are Hudson 
Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Chesapeake Bay; Green- 
land and Newfoundland; the peninsulas of Labrador, 
Nova Scotia, and Florida. On the south east are the 
Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; the West Indies; 
and the peninsula of Yucatan. 

75. What are the surface features of North A rnerica ? 

In the western part of North America, the Rocky 
Mountain Highland extends the entire length of the 
grand division. This highland is composed of great 
plateaus from which rise the lofty range of the Rocky 
Mountains, and many other shorter ranges. 

East of the Rocky Mountains, the highland slopes 
gradually to the Central Lowland, which reaches from 
the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. 

The highlands of the eastern part, while much older 
than those in the western, are very much lower. They are 
the Appalachian Mountains and the Laurentian Plateau. 

East of this region, and bordering the Atlantic Ocean, 
is the Atlantic Plain. 

"J 6. How is North America drained? 

The Central Lowland of North America is drained by 
the Mackenzie River, which flows to the Arctic Ocean, 
the Nelson-Saskatchewan emptying into Hudson Bay, 
and the Missouri-Mississippi system, which flows into 
the Gulf of Mexico. 

The waters of the Great Lakes reach the Atlantic 
Ocean through the St. Lawrence River. 

The rivers of the Pacific slope are the Yukon, which 
empties into Behring Sea; the Columbia; the Colorado, 
which flows into the Gulf of California. 

The Rio Grande empties into the Gulf of Mexico. 



222 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

77. How was North America peopled? 

After the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, 
the continent was explored and settled by the Spanish, 
French, and English. 

The descendants of these early settlers, together with 
other European emigrants, a few native Indians, and 
Eskimos, the negroes, and some Chinese, form the pres- 
ent population of this continent. 

y8. What are the political divisions of North America ? 

The United States, including Alaska ; the Dominion of 
Canada; Mexico; Central America ; West Indies; Danish 
America, consisting of Greenland and Iceland. 

yg. Locate Canada and tell of its climate and vegetation. 

The Dominion of Canada occupies that part of North 
America which lies north of the forty-ninth parallel, the 
Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. 

It lies in the Frigid, and northern part of the North 
Temperate zone. 

In the northern part there is but little vegetation. 
Farther south are valuable forest belts, while in the 
southern part, wheat, fruits, and the hardier plants of 
the temperate zone are raised. 

80. What are the occupations of Canada ? 

Agriculture and commerce are carried on in the south- 
ern part. In the north where many fur-bearing animals 
are found, the fur trade is important. The fisheries of 
Canada are among the most extensive in the world. 

The mineral products, gold, silver, copper, nickel, and 
coal, make mining a paying industry. 

81. How is Canada governed? 

Canada belongs to Great Britain. The country is 
divided into provinces and districts. From these repre- 
sentatives are chosen, who form the Canadian Parliament 
which is the law-making body of the country. The head 



GEOGRAPHY 223 

of the government, the governor-general, is appointed 
by the ruler of Great Britain. 

82. Name a7id tell something of the most important 
trade routes and cities. 

The chief trade route for eastern Canada is the St. 
Lawrence River. Montreal, the principal city is located 
at Lachine Rapids — the point in the St. Lawrence to 
which ocean steamers can ascend. Hence it is a great 
commercial and manufacturing city. Quebec, one of the 
most historical and most interesting cities in America, is 
also located on this river. Ottawa the capital of the 
Dominion is on the Ottawa River. 

Toronto, the second largest city, is located on Lake 
Ontario. Its excellent harbor, its situation in a fertile 
farming district, and its connections with the coal and 
lumbering regions, have made it a manufacturing center. 

The great Canadian-Pacific railway from St. Johns, 
New Brunswick, to Vancouver, is of great importance to 
Canada and has benefited the cities named. Other im- 
portant Canadian cities are Halifax, Nova Scotia, which 
has an excellent harbor; Winnepeg, Manitoba, in the 
wheat region ; and Dawson City in the Klondike country. 

8j. What composes Danish America ? 

The islands of Greenland and Iceland belong to Den- 
mark and are called Danish America. Because of their 
location they are of little value or importance. Green- 
land is covered with a great glacier. Iceland is a vol- 
canic island and has many volcanoes and geysers. 

84.. What of the location^ surface^ climate^ and prod- 
ucts of Mexico ? 

Mexico occupies the southwestern part of the Western 
Highland of North America. Many lofty volcanoes and 
peaks are found, Orsizaba and Popocatapetl are best 
known. 



224 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Although Mexico is largely in the Torrid zone, yet, 
because of the elevation the climate is mild. 

The agricultural products are, coffee, cotton, sugar 
cane, tobacco, and sisal hemp. Silver and other minerals 
are mined. 

8^. What are the chief cities of Mexico ? 

Mexico is the capital; Vera Cruz on the east and Aca- 
pulco on the southwest are the ports through which trade 
is carried on with the United States and other countries. 

86. Give leading facts about Central America. 

The narrow mountainous region south of Mexico is 
occupied by the five small Republics of Central America. 
From these countries we get coffee, rubber, bananas, 
mahogany and indigo. Gold is found near Bluefields, and 
silver in Honduras. 

The chief cities are San Jose, Managua, and New 
Guatemala. 

Sy. What island groups form the West Indies? 

The Bahamas; the Greater Antilles composed of the 
islands of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Haiti; and 
the Lesser Antilles. 

88. What of the first and the last group ? 

The Bahamas are coral islands. Sponges are obtained 
from the waters near these islands. 

The Lesser Antilles belong to various European 
nations. Many of these islands are of volcanic origin. 
Their most important product is sugar cane. 

'^ 8g. Give leadijig facts concerning each of the islands of 
the Greater Antilles. 

(1) Cuba, the largest of the West Indies, lies south of 
Florida, and is in the Torrid zone. Its soil is very fer- 
tile. Much sugar cane and tobacco are raised, and trop- 
ical fruits abound. 



GEOGRAPHY 



225 



The important cities are found along the coasts at 
points where there are exceptionally fine harbors. 

Havana is the capital, largest city, chief railroad cen- 
ter and seaport. 

Its chief exports are sugar cane and tobacco and its 
trade is mostly with United States. 

Santiago, the second largest city, and leading port in 
the eastern province, exports sugar. 

Cuba, through the intervention of United States, has 
recently become independent. 

(2) Puerto Rico resembles Cuba in most points. Be- 
sides sugar and tobacco, much coffee is raised. The 
largest cities are Ponce, and San Juan, the capital. This 
island belongs to United States. 

(3) Jamaica, belonging to Great Britain, lies south of 
Cuba. Its soil is fertile, and its inhabitants, who are 
mostly negroes, are engaged in agriculture. The chief 
products are sugar, molasses, rum, early vegetables and 
fruits, and Jamaica ginger. Kingston is the capital. 

(4) Haiti contains two negro republics, — Haiti, and 
Santo Domingo. Port au Prince is the capital of the 
former, and Santo Domingo of the latter. 

po. Locate United States. 

United States occupies the central part of North 
America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean on the east, 
to the Pacific Ocean on the west; and from the Great 
Lakes and Canada on the north, to Mexico and the Gulf 
of Mexico on the south. 

gi. In what heat belts is United States situated? 

United States lies between the steady heat of the 
torrid zone and the extremes of the frigid zone. It 
includes four climatic belts. The first, embracing the 
northern part, has temperate summers and cold winters. 
The second includes the central and north central part. 



226 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

where the summers are hot and the winters cold. The 
third, is the southern part, which has hot summers and 
temperate winters. The fourth, the Pacific coast region, 
is always temperate. 

g2. What of the rainfall? 

Most of the country, except the western plateau 
region and plains along the eastern base of the Rocky 
Mountains, has plentiful rains. The greatest amount of 
rain falls along the northern part of the Pacific coast, 
where the moisture-laden winds come in contact with the 
high mountains which lie at no great distance inland. 

pj. What are the surface features of United States ? 

United States includes the Atlantic Coast Plain, the 
Appalachian Mountains, a large part of the Great Cen- 
tral Lowland of North America, and the broadest portion 
of the Rocky Mountain Highland. 

p^. Describe the Atlantic Coast plain. 

Beginning at the mouth of the Hudson River and 
extending along the Atlantic coast to Florida is a wide 
slope descending from the Appalachian Highland to the 
seacoast. This is the Atlantic Coast Plain. The part of 
the slope near the highlands consists of foothills and is 
called the Piedmont region. 

Nearer the coast the plain is low, flat, and sandy, with 
many sluggish streams which flow in broad flood plains. 
This is the Tidewater region. 

p5. What is the ^^ fall line,'' 

Where the streams pass from the hard rocky Piedmont 
region to the softer layers of the coastal plain, they dig 
rapidly into the latter, forming falls and rapids. 

These rapids mark the head of navigation of the larger 
streams and also furnish water power, hence this "fall 
line" has determined the location of many cities. 



GEOGRAPHY 227 

g6. What are some of the characteristics of the Ap- 
palachian Highland ? 

The Appalachian Highland lies west of the Atlantic 
Coast Plain. Its eastern portion consists of many long 
parallel ridges, separated by wide and fertile valleys. 

South of the Potomac River the principal range is 
called the Blue Ridge. This range increases in height 
towards the south, its highest peak, Mt. Mitchell, being 
in North Carolina. The western part of the Appalachian 
Highland is a broad upland sloping gradually westward. 

The streams which flow to the Ohio through this part 
have cut deep gorges thus dividing it into detached 
plateaus. 

The rivers which flow to the southeast cross the moun- 
tain ranges through the water gaps. These gorges and 
gaps have been of great commercial value, since they 
afford low routes over the mountains. 

The valleys of the Appalachian region are fertile, some 
of the ridges are covered with forests, and many of them 
are rich in coal and iron ore. 

p/. Locate the Great Central Lowland^ and name its 
divisions. 

The Central Lowland slopes from the Appalachian 
Highland, to the Mississippi River and then gradually 
rises to the Rocky Mountains on the west. In the north- 
ern part are many lakes. It is known as the Lake plain 
region. 

South and southwest of this region are found level and 
rolling prairies. From the mouth of the Ohio, south- 
ward, the plain slopes toward the Gulf of Mexico and is 
called the Gulf plain. 

Lying between these plains and the Rocky Mountains 
is the slope known as the Western or Great plain. 

g8. What are the principal divisions and general 
characteristics of the Rocky Mountain Highland? 



228 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

The Rocky Mountain Highland is a vast plateau 
traversed by lofty mountain ranges. The eastern 
ranges are known as the Rocky Mountains, and extend 
the entire length of the country from Canada to Mexico. 

The plateau on which the mountains rest is more than 
a mile high and the mountains rise between one and two 
miles above the plateau. West of the Rocky Mountains 
the plateau is divided into several parts by smaller moun- 
tain ranges. In the north is the Columbia plateau; south 
of this the Colorado plateau, noted for its deep, narrow 
canyons; while between the two lies the Great Basin, 
the driest part of the United States. It has few perma- 
nent streams and its lakes are salt. Along the west side 
of this plateau are the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade 
range. 

pp. What valleys lie west of the Rocky Mountain 
region ? 

Between this region and the Coast Range are found 
the fertile valley of California and the Sound valley. 

100, Account for the locations of the different rivers of 
United States^ and for their size. 

The highland regions form the divides between the 
rivers of the Pacific, and the Atlantic-Gulf slopes. 

The rivers of the Pacific slope are fed from the snows 
of the Rocky Mountain Highland and by the abundant 
rains of the western slope. 

Those of the Central Lowland rise in the highland 
regions and drain a vast territory over which much rain 
falls, hence they carry large volumes of water. 

The rivers of the Atlantic slope are short. They have 
their source in the Appalachian Highland and do not 
drain a large territory, hence they are not large. 

■ 707. Name the principal rivers of the Atlantic slope 
and tell into what waters they empty. 



GEOGRAPHY 229 

The Penobscot empties into Penobscot Bay; Kennebec, 
into Casco Bay; Merrimac, into the Atlantic; Connecti- 
cut into Long Island Sound ; Hudson, into New York Bay ; 
Delaware, into Delaware Bay; Susquehanna, Potomac, 
and James, into Chesapeake Bay; Roanoke into Albe- 
marle Sound; Cape Fear, Santee, Savannah, and Alta- 
maha into the Atlantic Ocean. 

102. What great river system drains tJie Central Low- 
lands. 

The Mississippi, with its western tributaries, the Mis- 
souri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers, and its eastern tribu- 
tary, the Ohio, together with many smaller branches of 
all these rivers, form the great system which waters and 
drains the Central Lowland. 

70J. What rivers besides the Mississippi empty into the 
Gulf of Mexico ? 

The Appalachicola, Mobile, Brazos, Colorado and 
Nueces Rivers. 

104.. What are the principal rivers of tiie Pacific slope ? 

The Columbia, which empties into the Pacific Ocean; 
the Sacramento and San Joaquin which flow into San 
Francisco Bay; the Colorado which empties into the Gulf 
of California. 

105. Where are the principal lake regions of United 
States ? How were these lakes formed ? 

The northern part of United States abounds in lakes. 
These are the result largely of glacial action, by which 
valleys were deepened or else choked by glacial deposits. 
In the Great Basin are Great Salt Lake, and several 
others of like character, which have no outlet. 

106. How is the distribution of plants and animals of 
United States related to the surface features of the 
country f 



230 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Owing to its elevation, a large area of western United 
States has very little rainfall. There are no trees, and 
some portions are almost devoid of both animal and plant 
life. The sage bush, bunch grass, mesquite, and cactus, 
are the most common plants of this arid region. 

Along the Pacific coast, and on the mountain tops, 
where there is more rainfall, forests are found. 

Among the mountains are found the puma, cinnamon 
and grizzly bears, deer and elk. On the Great Plains 
the coyote, antelope, and rabbits abound. 

The central and eastern parts of United States was 
formerly covered with forests of evergreen and deciduous 
trees, and prairies. 

The forests have been mostly cleared away and this 
region now produces valuable crops of the various plants 
of the temperate zone. 

The settlement of this part of the country has resulted 
in the extermination of most of the wild animals. In 
their place are found domestic animals in great number. 

loj. Where are the most valuable mineral deposits in 
United States ? 

In the eastern part are found the largest coal and iron 
deposits. In the Rocky Mountain Highland gold, silver 
and copper are abundant and many other minerals are 
found. 

io8. What are the leading industries of United States ? 
Account for each. 

Owing to the fertility of the soil, and the variety of 
products that may be raised, more people of United States 
are engaged in farming than in any other occupation. 

In the corn growing belt, on the pasture lands of the 
west, on the prairie plains, and on the upland pastures, 
herding and stock raising are carried on. 

The mines of the United States are the richest in the 



GEOGRAPHY 231 

world, and mining is carried on in almost every state, 
but especially in the highland regions. 

Manufacturing of all kinds is an important industry. 
It is carried on most extensively in the cities and towns 
of the eastern and central sections of the country. 

As a result of the other great industries, the commerce 
of United States is very great. While its foreign com- 
merce is important, it equals only about one-tenth of the 
domestic commerce. 

log. What is the population of United States? Where 
is it most dense ? Of what races and peoples is it made 
up? 

There are more than 76,000,000 people in the United 
States, nine-tenths of whom live in the eastern half of 
the country. The northeastern part is most densely 
populated. The country is inhabited by a few native 
Indians, some Chinese, and negroes, but largely by whites. 
Many of the latter are European immigrants who have 
been attracted to this country by its opportunities for 
success in life and by its free government. 

no. Why is this country called United States? 

The country is divided into many divisions, each hav- 
ing its own local institutions and government; but all 
are united into one nation under one general govern- 
ment and are called "The United States of America." 

///. Of what does the United States consist ? 

The United States consists of forty-five states; six 
territories, including Alaska and Hawaii; the District of 
Columbia; the islands of Puerto Rico, Guam, Tutuila, 
and the Philippines. 

112. What form of government has the United States ? 
The United States is a republic. 

/7j. What is the Federal Government? Name and 
explain its divisions. 



232 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The general government of the nation is the Federal 
government. It has to do only with national and inter- 
national affairs. 

Its divisions are: (1) The legislative or law-making 
branch, called Congress^ to which each state sends two 
senators, and representatives according to its population. 
(2) The executive or law-enforcing branch, at the head of 
which is the President^ who is elected for a term of four 
years. (3) The judicial^ or law-explaining branch, con- 
sisting of the Federal courts. 

11^. What are the industrial divisions of the United 
States f 

The Northeastern, or cloth manufacturing section; 
the Northern, or food, iron, and coal producing, and 
manufacturing section; the Southern, or cotton section; 
the Plateau, or mining and grazing section; the Pacific, 
or food and gold producing section. 

7/5. What states compose the Northeastern section ? 
Give their capitals. 

Maine, Augusta; New Hampshire, Concord; Vermont, 
Montpelier; Massachusetts, Boston; Connecticut, Hart- 
ford; Rhode Island, Providence and Newport. 

116. What are the leading industries of this section ? 
Why? 

Because of the thin and worn-out soil, agriculture is 
not carried on very extensively in this region. 

About one half the surface of Maine is covered with 
forests, hence lumbering is an important industry. 

Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts 
have fine granite quarries, Vermont produces much 
marble, and Connecticut has valuable sandstone quarries. 
Much slate is also quarried in this section. Along the 
seacoast, many of the people are engaged in fishing, 
especially for cod and mackerel. The chief occupation 



GEOGRAPHY 233 

of these states is manufacturing. This industry was 
stimulated in the beginning by the excellent water 
power furnished by the rivers and lakes. 

As coal and iron are scarce in this section, the articles 
manufactured are such as are valued for the ingenuity 
and skill displayed in making them. The chief manu- 
factures are cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes, 
cutlery and jewelry, and rubber goods. 

iiy. What cities are engaged in the manufacture of 
cotton and woolen goods ? 

There are more than four hundred cotton mills in New 
England and many woolen mills. The cities engaged 
most extensively in these industries are: 

Biddeford, Lewiston, Auburn, and Augusta, in Maine. 

In New Hampshire, Nashua, Manchester, and Dover. 

Lowell, Lawrence, Pittsfield, Fall River, New Bedford 
and Taunton in Massachusetts. 

Pawtucket, Woonsocket and Providence, in Rhode 
Island. 

118. What cities manufacture the most boots and shoes ? 
Lynn, Haverhill, and Brockton in Massachusetts, 

iig. What are some of the metal manufactures and 
where carried on ? 

Worcester manufactures iron and wire goods. 

Providence makes jewelry. 

New Haven, Hartford, and Springfield produce fire- 
arms, also hardware, cars and bicycles. 

Bridgeport makes carriages and sewing machines. 

Waltham makes watches. Waterbury manufactures 
clocks and watches. 

Meriden makes jewelry and cutlery. 

120. What other cities of New Eitgland are noted? 



234 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

New Haven, the seat of Yale College. Cambridge, 
where Harvard College is located. 

Gloucester is the greatest fishing port in United States. 
Quincy and Barre have fine granite quarries. 
Rutland has the most noted marble quarries. 
Bath is a ship building center. 

121. Name the Northern Appalachian States and their 
capitals. 

New York, Albany; Pennsylvania, Harrisburg; New 
Jersey, Trenton; Delaware, Dover; Maryland, Annapo- 
lis; Virginia, Richmond; West Virginia, Charleston. 

122. In what parts of this section is agriculture carried 
on ? What are some of the chief products ? 

In nearly all of New York state, in the valleys of the 
Appalachians, and on the coastal plains agriculture is an 
important industry. 

In the northern part, food and dairy products receive 
most attention. In Virginia, especially, much tobacco 
is raised. 

In most of the states fruits of all kinds and berries, 
and vegetables are raised in large quantities. 

I2J. What are the most important ^niiteral products ? 
Anthracite and bituminous coal, iron, petroleum and 
salt. 

12/].. What w.ay be said of the iron industries of this 
region ? How are they dependent upon the coal supply ? 

Almost every city in these states is engaged in some 
kind of iron work. 

Coke, a product of bituminous coal, is used in smelting 
and in manufacturing iron from iron ore. Coal is also 
used for fuel in the mills and factories. 

12^. What other fuels are found in this locality? 
Petroleum and natural gas. 



GEOGRAPHY 235 

126. What of manufacturing in these states ? 

As in New England, manufacturing is an important 
industry. Besides the manufacturing of all kinds of iron 
goods, there are glass manufactories, potteries, silk and 
carpet mills, sugar and oil refineries, and many other 
branches of this industry. 

12^. What are the most i'tnportant cities of this section ? 
Account for their location and growth. 

New York, on New York Bay, at the mouth of the 
Hudson river is the largest city in America. Its growth 
is due to its excellent harbor, and its connection, by rail 
and water, with the west. It has half the foreign com- 
merce of the country. 

Philadelphia, on the "fall line" of the Delaware can 
be reached by ocean vessels. Its nearness to the coal 
and iron regions makes it a great shipping port for these 
products. 

Baltimore, at the head of Chesapeake Bay, has a good 
harbor, excellent railroad facilities, and is especially 
noted for its oyster fisheries. 

128. Locate and tell something about Washington. 

On the Potomac River in Maryland, is the District of 
Columbia, in which is situated Washington, the capital 
of United States. Its chief buildings are the great 
government buildings, and its inhabitants are chiefly the 
government officials and employees, the foreign repre- 
sentatives, and the members of Congress. 

I2g. Name some of the other important cities of this 
section. 

Buffalo, the great lake port in western New York. 
Rochester, which has many nurseries in its vicinity. 
Syracuse, near the salt works. 
Utica, a great cheese market. 



236 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

West Point, the seat of the United States Military 
Academy. 

Annapolis, where the United States Naval Academy is 
located. 

Ithaca, the seat of Cornell University. 

Princeton, of Princeton University. 

Baltimore, of Johns Hopkins University. 

Newark, noted for its manufactories. 

Jersey City, as a railway center. 

Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, Reading and Altoona, 
which have iron manufactories of all kinds. 

Trenton, where are many potteries. 

Wheeling and Pittsburg, which manufacture glass. 

Richmond, the largest city and shipping port of Vir- 
ginia. 

I JO. What are the commercial advantages of this 
region ? 

The deep bays and good harbors along the Atlantic 
coast; the navigable rivers; the connection through the 
Great Lakes with the west; the Erie canal, and other 
canals; the numerous railroads. 

iji. What states are known as the East Central 
States ? Give their capitals. 

Ohio, Columbus; Indiana, Indianapolis; Illinois, 
Springfield; Kentucky, Frankfort; Michigan, Lansing; 
Wisconsin, Madison. 

1^2. Name the states of the Northern section which lie 
west of the Mississippi^ and their capitals. 

Minnesota, St. Paul; Iowa, Des Moines; Missouri, 
Jefferson City; Kansas, Topeka; Nebraska, Lincoln; 
South Dakota, Pierre; North Dakota, Bismarck. 

/jj. In what part of the United States does this sectio7i 

lie ? 



GEOGRAPHY 237 

Largely in the Lake and Prairie plains — the most 
fertile parts of the Central Lowland. 

7j^. What is the chief industry ? 

Because of its location agriculture is the chief industry 
of this section. It is the greatest food producing region 
of the world. 

135' ^<^^^^ the chief crops. 

Wheat, oats, corn, potatoes, hay, tobacco, and flax. 

7j(5. What other industries are dependent upon these 
crops ? 

The raising of domestic animals and the production of 
butter and eggs. 

7J7. What 7ninerals are found in this section ? 

Iron in great quantities, and copper are found near 
Lake Superior. Lead and zinc in the Ozark mountains; 
coal and iron in Ohio, Illinois, and other states. 

I J 8. Are there any forest regions in this section ? 

Much of the northern part of this section has valuable 
forests of pine. 

7jp. What is characteristic of the manufacturing of 
this section ? 

The manufacturing of this section consists largely of 
the manufacture of the raw materials which it produces. 

1^0. What are some of the chief articles of mamfacture ? 

Flour, dressed and preserved meats, iron and steel 
goods. 

' 1/J.1. Which states of the Northern Section are especially 
noted for one or ^inore of the following: wool, wheat, flax, 
cor7t, tobacco, dairy products, iron, coal and petroleum? 

Ohio noted for wool and petroleum. 

Minnesota and North Dakota for wheat. 



238 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The states of the Missouri basin produce much flax. 

Iowa produces more corn, oats, hay, and hogs than 
any other state. 

Kentucky and Virginia lead in the production of to- 
bacco. 

New York and Iowa are noted for dairy products. 

Pennsylvania and Michigan produce the most iron, and 
Pennsylvania the most coal. 

14.2. Why do we expect to find many large cities in the 
Lake and Prairie section ? \ 

Because of the commerce and manufacturing which 
naturally result from the abundance of raw materials 
produced. 

j^j. Where are these cities found? 
Along the Great Lakes, and the Ohio, Mississippi, and 
Missouri Rivers. 

7^^. Locate and tell something of the cities on the Great 
Lakes. 

Duluth and Superior at the west end of Lake Superior, 
are at the head of navigation of the Great Lakes and 
ship much wheat, lumber, iron, etc. 

Chicago, at the southern extremity of Lake Michigan, 
is the nearest lake port to the greatest grain region of 
the world. It is, therefore, a great grain market. It is 
also the most important meat market in the world. It 
is a lumber market, has numerous manufacturing inter- 
ests, is a great railroad center, and is the second largest 
city in United States. 

Milwaukee, the largest city of Wisconsin, is a grain 
and lumber market and has many tanneries and brew- 
eries. 

Detroit, the largest city of Michigan, is also on the 
Great Lakes water route. It is a shipping and manufac- 
turing center. 



GEOGRAPHY 239 

On the lake shore of Ohio are Toledo and Cleveland, 
both of which are busy and growing cities. 

Buffalo in New York, and Erie, Pennsylvania, "are 
also included in these lake cities. 

7^5. What are the largest cities on the Mississippi ? 

St. Louis, in Missouri, is an important market for 
grain, stock, cotton, and tobacco. It is also a manufac- 
turing city and its commerce by water and rail is very 
extensive. 

Minneapolis, the leading flour producing city of Amer- 
ica, and its "twin city," St. Paul, which is an important 
trade center, are the largest cities of Minnesota. 

14.6. What are the cities on the Missouri? 

Kansas City, Missouri; Kansas City, Kansas; and 
Omaha, Nebraska. These cities are markets for stock, 
grain and flour, are engaged in meat packing, and are 
railroad centers. 

7^7. Name the principal cities of the Ohio valley. 

Three cities of the upper Ohio, Pittsburg, Allegheny, 
and Wheeling, owe their importance to iron and coal, 
and to their location on this navigable river. 

Cincinnati, the largest city in this valley, is a great 
manufacturing center. 

Louisville, the largest city of Kentucky, is situated at 
the "falls of the Ohio." It is a manufacturing city, a 
railway center, and the largest tobacco market in the 
world. 

i/f-S. What are the commercial facilities of this section ? 

The natural water routes of the Mississippi and its 
tributaries; the Great Lakes; canals; and more railroads 
than any other section of United States. 

7^p. What are some of the most important canals ? 
The Erie Canal from Buffalo to Albany ; the Welland 



240 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Canal, around Niagara Falls; the "Soo" canal, connect- 
ing Lake Superior and Lake Huron, through which is 
carried more freight than through any other canal in the 
world. 

750. Name the states of the Southern Section and give 
their capitals. 

North Carolina, Raleigh; South Carolina, Columbia; 
Georgia, Atlanta ; Florida, Tallahassee; Alabama, Mont- 
gomery; Tennessee, Nashville; Mississippi, Jackson; 
Louisiana, Baton Rouge; Arkansas, Little Rock; Okla- 
homa, Guthrie; Texas, Austin; Indian Territory. 

75/. How are the industries of this section i^ifluenced 
by surface and climate ? 

Almost the entire area of this section is a plain, hav- 
ing an abundant rainfall, and long hot summers and 
temperate winters. 

Only in the extreme west, do droughts occur, and the 
surface is rugged only near the Appalachian and Ozark 
Mountains. 

As the soil is fertile, and other conditions are favor- 
able, agriculture is the chief industry. 

152. What are the leading products ? 

The most important product is cotton. Other products 
are rice, sugar, corn, wheat, tobacco, oranges, peaches, 
and sweet potatoes. 

75J. Where are the forest regions and what products do 
they furnish ? 

In the valleys of the mountains are forests of oak, 
hickory, ash, poplar, and cottonwood. On the sandy 
plains the yellow pine abounds. 

From these forests are obtained building lumber, 
especially the hard or yellow pine, also turpentine, resins, 
and tannic acid. 



GEOGRAPHY 241 

75^. What of the other industries in these states ? 

The principal coal and iron mining region is in Ala- 
bama. 

Recent discoveries have made Texas a noted oil-pro- 
ducing region. Few other minerals are found. 

The commerce of this section is not extensive owing to 
the few good harbors and the comparatively small amount 
of manufacturing. 

The manufacturing of cotton, iron and steel, and the 
distilling of turpentine are the chief industries of this kind. 
But muanufacturing interests are advancing and factor- 
ies are increasing rapidly. 

In the western part many sheep and cattle are raised. 

755. Why are there fewer large cities in the southern 
states tJian i7i the northern ? 

Large cities are the result of superior shipping ad- 
vantages and numerous factories. This region has few 
good harbors or navigable rivers, and its people are 
largely engaged in farming. 

1^6. What is the largest city of this region ? Why ? 

New Orleans, the largest southern city, is located 
about one hundred miles from the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi at a point to which ocean steamers ascend. It is 
connected by water with Pittsburg, St. Paul, and Kansas 
City, and by rail with cities north, east and west, and is 
at the gateway of the most productive valley in America. 
Hence it is an important commercial city, being a mar- 
ket for cotton, sugar, rice, and other products. 

757. Name the leading coast cities ? 

Charleston, vSavannah (which ships more naval stores 
than any other port in the world), Tampa, Mobile, and 
Galveston are engaged chiefly in shipping lumber and 
cotton. 



242 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

1^8. What are some of the river and inland cities ? 

Memphis, Vicksburg, Natchez, Baton Rouge, Shreve- 
port and Little Rock are river ports. Chattanooga in 
central Tennessee, Birmingham in the iron region of 
Alabama, Dallas, Ft. Worth, San Antonio and El Paso, 
the leading cities of Texas, are other important places. 

/5p. Name the states and territories of the Plateau 
Section and their capitals. 

Montana, Helena; Wyoming, Cheyenne; Colorado, 
Denver; New Mexico, Santa Fe; Arizona, Phoenix; 
Utah, Salt Lake City; Idaho, Boise; Nevada, Carson 
City. 

i6o. What are the states of the Pacific Section ? Give 
their capitals. 

California, Sacramento; Oregon, Salem; Washington, 
Olympia. 

i6i. Why is m^ining a leading occupation in these 
sections ? 

Because of the great mineral deposits in the moun- 
tains, and because the character of the surface, and the 
soil does not favor other industries. 

162. What are some of the chief minerals and where 
found in largest quantities ? 

Gold, silver, copper, lead, and quicksilver are mined. 

Montana produces more copper than any other state in 
the Union. 

Colorado is the greatest silver producing region of the 
world, and produces more lead than any other state. It 
ranks with California in the production of gold. 

California also produces a large amount of quicksilver. 

Wyoming and Washington mine most coal. 

i6j. What is another important industry? 



GEOGRAPHY 243 

Herding ranks next to mining. On the Great Plains 
and the high plateaus many cattle and sheep are pas- 
tured. Montana and California lead in wool production, 
and New Mexico and Wyoming in cattle raising. 

16^. What is irrigation ? 

Much of this region is so arid that farming is impos- 
sible. By making reservoirs and digging canals and 
ditches, water is distributed at will over the land and it 
can then be cultivated. 

16^. What other industries are found in the Pacific 
states ? 

Lumbering in the north, where the forests are very 
heavy; salmon fishing in the Columbia river; the pro- 
duction of fruits, especially in California. 

166. What are the co7n7nercial conditio7is of these sections? 

This is the most thinly populated part of United 
States and there are few large cities. The mountains 
are crossed by several lines of transcontinental railroads, 
and the Sound and California valleys are traversed by 
roads from north to south. Because the mountains rise 
almost from the sea there are few good harbors on the 
west coast. 

i6y. Name and locate the chief cities of the interior. 

Denver and Pueblo in Colorado, are important trade, 
manufacturing, and railroad centers. 

Colorado Springs is a leading health resort. 

Leadville and Cripple Creek are in the mining dis- 
tricts of this state. 

Salt Lake City and Ogden are in Utah. 

Butte, Montana, has great copper mines. 

168. What are the leading cities of the Pacific slope ? 
San Francisco on San Francisco Bay is the greatest 
shipping point on the Pacific coast. Other California 



244 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

cities are Oakland, Stockton, San Diego, and Los 
Angeles. 

Portland, Salem and Astoria in Oregon ; and Seattle, 
Tacoma, and Spokane in Washington are commercial 
and manufacturing cities. 

From San Francisco, Portland, and Seattle, are steam- 
ship lines to Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, Asia, and 
Australia. 

i6g. How did Alaska become a part of U?iited States f 
What are its resources ? 

Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1866. Among 
its industries, whale and seal fishing are important. Its 
most valuable industry is gold mining near Juneau and 
in the Klondike region. Sitka is its capital and largest 
city. 

770. What islands in the Pacific Ocean belong to 
United States ? 
The Hawaiian Islands, Philippines, Guam, and Tutuila. 

iji. Of what use are the two latter ? 
They are valuable only as coaling stations. 

IJ2. Locate Honolulu and Manilla. Give leading facts 
about each. 

Honolulu is the largest city on the Hawaiian Islands. 
It has a fine climate and is a coaling station for Arctic 
whalers, warships and merchant vessels. It exports 
sugar, which is the chief product of these islands. 

Manilla is the only city of importance in the Philip- 
pines. It has a good harbor and from it are exported 
sugar, tobacco, and Manilla hemp. 

ly^. Name the ten largest cities of United States. 

New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Boston, 
Baltimore, Cleveland, Buffalo, San Francisco, and Cin- 
cinnati. 



GEOGRAPHY 245 

ly^. Name in tJie order of their importance the ten 
leading exports afid ten leading imports of United States. 

The exports are cotton, breadstuffs, meats and dairy 
products, iron and steel, petroleum and similar oils, 
copper, wood, cattle, tobacco, leather and articles manu- 
factured from many of these materials. 

The imports are sugar and molasses, silk, hides and 
skins, flax and hemp, chemicals and drugs, coffee, cotton 
and woolen goods, rubber and rubber goods, fruits and 
nuts. 

775. Give the rank of United States in size^ population^ 
wealthy and a few leading products. 

United States ranks first among the nations of the 
world in wealth, commerce, manufacturing, in miles of 
railroad, and in the production of cotton, wheat, coal, 
and iron. 

It ranks second in the production of silver, in the 
length of its waterways, and in its merchant marine. 

In the production of gold and sugar it ranks third. 

Its rank in the production of wool and in population is 
fourth, while in area it ranks fifth. 

iy6. Locate Eurasia. 

Eurasia occupies the northern part of the eastern con- 
tinental plateau. 

It lies between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans on the 
east and west, and between the Arctic ocean on the 
north and the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea 
on the south. 

777. What are its two divisions f By what natural 
boundaries are they separated? 

This continent includes Europe and Asia. The boun- 
dary between them is the Ural mountains, Ural river, 
Caspian Sea, Caucasus mountains, and the Black Sea. 



246 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

iy8. What are the coast line features of Europe ? What 
are its advantages f 

Europe has the most irregular coast line of any grand 
division. Its principal indentations are the White, 
Baltic, North, Adriatic and ^gean Seas, and the Bay of 
Biscay. Its five great peninsulas are the Scandinavian, 
Danish, Spanish, Italian, and Balkan. Such irregulari- 
ties give a great length of seacoast and afford many ex- 
cellent harbors. 

//p. Describe the surface of Europe. 

The mountains of Europe are mostly in the southern 
part and consist largely of detached ranges running east 
and west. The most important of these are Pyrenees 
between France and Spain; the Alps in the south cen- 
tral part; the Apennines in Italy; the Carpathians in 
Austro-Hungary, and the Balkans north of Turkey. In 
the north are the Kiolen mountains in Scandinavia, and 
a few minor ranges in the British Isles. 

About two-thirds of Europe is a great low plain which 
occupies all the western, northern and eastern part. 

J 80. What of the climate of Europe ? 

Europe lies in the northern part of the north temper- 
ate, and the southern part of the north frigid zones. 

Owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, its numer- 
ous inland seas, and the position of its mountains, the 
climate of Europe is very mild. 

181 Name the principal rivers of Europe and tell into 
what waters they empty. 

The rivers of Russia are the Petchora, emptying into 
the Arctic ocean; the Dwina, into the White Sea, Volga, 
into the Caspian Sea; the Don and Dnieper, into the 
Black Sea. The rivers of Germany are the Oder and 
Vistula emptying into the Baltic Sea, and the Rhine and 
Elbe into the North sea. 



GEOGRAPHY 247 

The Danube, which is mostly in Austria-Hungary, 
empties into the Black Sea. 

The Po in Italy flows into the Adriatic. 

The Rhone flows south through France to the Medit- 
erranean; the Seine and Loire flow west to the English 
Channel and Bay of Biscay. The rivers of Spain, the 
Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquiver empty into 
the Atlantic. 

The Thames, flowing into the English Channel, is the 
only important river in England. 

182. What is the prevailing form of government ijt 
Europe ? 

Most of the states of Europe are limited monarchies. 
r--Rttssiu:fe'a;n"ate0lrut^^^^^ and France and Switzer- 

land are republics. 

18^. Why has Europe so many states ? 

Because of the natural barriers between various parts 
of the continent, and because of the difference in lan- 
guage, customs and manner of life, Europe is divided 
into twenty or more independent countries. 

18^. What are the chief industries of Europe? In 
what part is each carried on ? 

Agriculture, manufacturing and commerce. 

Agriculture affords occupation for more than half the 
people and is carried on in all parts except in the extreme 
north and on the more rugged mountain slopes. 

The manufacturing region includes the British Isles 
and the countries which border the English Channel and 
the North and Baltic Seas. 

Commerce is an important industry in all the states 
of Europe. The foreign commerce is especially great 
because of the large amount of goods required by the 
immense population. 



248 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

1 8^. What minerals are found ijt Europe, and where ? 

On the southwestern coast of England are tin 
mines. This country also produces large quantities of 
coal and iron ore. 

Germany leads the world in the production of zinc. 

In the Ural mountains gold, silver, copper and platinum 
are found. 

Russia also has some iron and coal mines, while the, 
region about the Caspian sea is noted for the production 
of petroleum. 

1 86. Of what does the British Empire consist ? 

The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and^:^fe^a!H# and of the colonial pos- 
sessions. 

18^. Locate the British Isles and give reasons for their 
leading industries. 

The British Isles lie northwest of the continent of 
Europe. Much of the land is used for pasturage and 
cattle and sheep are raised. 

The mines of England afford employment for many 
miners. Upon the coal from these mines depends the 
manufacturing greatness of Great Britain. More than 
half of the working population are engaged in manu- 
facturing. 

The importation of raw material and the exportation 
of manufactured articles give this country the largest 
commerce in the world. 

188. Name the representative cities of the United King- 
dom and tell something of each. 

London, the capital of the British Empire, is the largest 
city in the world and the center of the world's commer- 
cial and financial interests. 

Liverpool is the great seaport for the manufacturing 
regions. 



GEOGRAPHY 249 

Leeds, with the cities around it, is noted for woolen 
manufactures; Manchester is the great cotton manufac- 
turing center; Birmingham and Sheffield are renowned 
for steel products and cutlery. Southampton and Ports- 
mouth are important ports on the south. 

Glasgow, the center of shipbuilding and the manu- 
facture of machinery, and Edinburgh, are two great 
cities in Scotland. 

Of the Irish cities, Belfast is noted for its linen, Dub- 
lin is the capital and chief port of English trade, and 
Queenstown is an important seaport. 

i8g. What country of Europe ranks next to Great 
Britain in industrial and co7nmercial greatness ? Give its 
leading products. 

As a greater part of the soil of the German Empire is 
productive, this country ranks next to Great Britain in 
commercial advancement. 

It manufactures great quantities of food stuffs, be- 
sides textiles of all kinds, hardware, and porcelain and 
wooden ware. 

This country has many railroads, .and navigable rivers, 
hence its commerce is great. 

igo. Of what does the German Empire consist ? Give 
capital and chief cities. 

The German Empire consists of twenty-two separate 
states and some free towns. 

Its capital is Berlin. Hamburg is the most important 
seaport on the continent. Bremen is another seaport. 

Leipzig is famous for its book publishing; Munich, for 
its art industries, Nuremberg, for its quaint architecture 
and its toys; Essen, for the Krupp steel works. Cologne 
on the Rhine, and Frankfort on the Main, are also noted. 

igi. What is tJie third great co'imnercial country of 
Europe? For what are its people noted? 



250 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

France ranks third among the European commercial 
nations. Its people are noted for their vivacity, thrift, 
and intelligence. 

1^2. What are the leading industries of France ? 

The culture of grapes and the manufacture of wine, 
and the culture and manufacture of silk. The French 
also manufacture much cloth. 

jpj. Name and tell something of the chief cities of 
France. 

Paris, the capital, is the third largest city in the world, 
and is considered the most beautiful city on the globe. 
It is a great commercial city, and a center of art and 
learning. Havre, the most important seaport. Marseilles 
on the Mediterranean, and Bordeaux, the great shipping 
point for wines, are other seaports. Lyons is the center 
of silk manufacturing. 

ig/f.. What cotmtries lie between Germany arid France ? 
What is peculiar about their surface ? 

Belgium and the Netherlands, or Holland. These 
countries occupy the delta of the Rhine and contain the 
most fertile farming land in Europe. 

In Holland it is necessary to build drainage canals and 
dikes in order to collect the surface water and keep out 
the sea. 

1(^5. How are the industries of these countries affected 
by their surface and location f 

Because of their fertile soil these countries are engaged 
in agriculture. Dairy products are exported, but they are 
so densely peopled that the food products are consumed at 
home. Shipbuilding and fishing are among the industries 
of Holland. In the southern part of Belgium are iron and 
coal mines and the country is famous for the iron, steel, 



GEOGRAPHY 251 

and hardware manufactured in this section. The manu- 
facture of woven goods — carpets, laces, woolens and 
linens — is also an important industry of Belgium. 

Because of their location both of these countries have 
great commercial advantages and their commerce is 
extensive. 

ig6. Name the capitals and chief cities of these coun- 
tries. 

The capital of Netherlands is The Hague. Amster- 
dam, the largest city, is noted for its university and 
museums, and for shipping and diamond cutting. Rot- 
terdam is a great seaport. 

Brussels is the capital of Belgium and is a commercial, 
political and art center. 

Antwerp is one of the leading seaports of Europe. 

igj. What countries lie between the North and Baltic 
Seas ? 

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. 

ig8. Give tJie industries and cities of each of these 
countries. 

Very little of the surface of Norway is tillable and as 
there is no coal, manufacturing is not profitable. The 
chief industries are lumbering and fishing. Christiania, 
the capital, and Bergen, a noted fishing port, are the 
principal cities. 

Agriculture, lumbering, and the mining of lead, cop- 
per, zinc and iron, are the leading industries of Sv/eden. 
Stockholm, the capital, is a most beautiful city and 
Gothenburg is the chief center for exports. 

Farming, especially dairying, and the manufacture of 
porcelain, are the chief industries of Denmark. Copen- 
hagen, the capital, guards the entrance to the Baltic Sea, 
and has the only good harbor in this country. 



252 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

7pp. What country occupies the eastern part of Europe ? 
Tell of its surface^ climate^ and industries. 

Russia, the largest state in Europe, occupies the east- 
ern part. Extremes of temperature and lack of sufficient 
rainfall are characteristic of this country. 

Agriculture, lumbering, and mining are the leading 
industries. A greater part of the manufacturing is done 
by hand. 

Russia ranks next to United States in the production 
of grain and petroleum. 

The navigable rivers of Russia have aided domestic 
commerce, but because of lack of good harbors its foreign 
commerce is small. 

200. What are the leading cities of Russia ? Why ? 

St. Petersburg at the head of the Gulf of Finland, is 
the capital and largest city of Russia, and the chief 
northern seaport. Riga is also a northern seaport. 

Moscow, the second city in size, the former capital, 
and the chief manufacturing city is located near the 
center of the country. Its situation is well chosen be- 
cause of the rivers which flow from this region, and since 
railroads have been built it has become the greatest rail- 
way center of Russia. 

Odessa, on the Black Sea, is a great grain market and 
flour milling city. 

Warsaw is an important railroad and trade center. 

Nijni-Novgorod on the Volga is noted for its annual 
fairs. It is suited, by its superior water connection, to 
be a great center of exchange for Asiatic and Russian 
products. 

"" 201. What large empire is drained by the Danube 

river ? What of the stir face and products of this country ? 

Austria-Hungary is almost surrounded by mountain 

ranges which enclose the fertile plains of the Danube. 



GEOGRAPHY 253 

These plains are a great wheat producing region, and 
other grains and agricultural crops are raised. 

The western part of this country is very mountainous. 
Forests abound and lumber is obtained. 

Salt, gold, silver, lead, mercury, copper and coal are 
mined. 

202. What are the cities of Austria- Hungary ? 

Vienna, the capital, is the fourth city of Europe in size. 

It is located on the Danube and at an opening between 
the mountains through which has always been a great 
trade route from western Europe to Asia and the Medi- 
terranean. 

Budapest is in the grain growing regions, and is en- 
gaged in manufacturing flour and shipping grains. 

Prague is located in the mining district and is also a 
noted manufacturing city. 

Trieste, on the Adriatic, is the largest Austrian sea- 
port. 

20 J. What country is situated oit the Alphte plateau ? 
For what is this country especially noted ? 

Switzerland, the mountain republic of Europe. It is 
famous for its beautiful scenery and is the most noted 
summer resort of Europe. 

20/1-. Tell something of the character aitd occupations of 
the people. 

The people are independent, brave, skillful and indus- 
trious. Although a mountainous country, agriculture is 
the principal industry, and dairy products are exported. 

Textiles, laces, watches and carved wood are manufac- 
tured. Many of these are made by hand. 

205. What are the cities of Switzerland ? 
Zurich is an important railway center, being connected 
by the St. Gothard railway (named from the famous St. 



254 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Gothard tunnel) with Italy, and by other lines with 
France, Germany and Austria. 

Basel is also on this railway, and both these cities are 
noted for manufacturing of silk. 

Geneva is a celebrated educational center, and manu- 
factures watches. Bern is the capital. 

206. What country lies south of Switzerland? What 
of its climate and products ? 

Italy, with the islands of Sardinia and Sicily, lies 
south of Switzerland. Because of its location in the 
Mediterranean, and the protection afforded by the Alps, 
the climate is very mild. Agriculture is the leading in- 
dustry. Grapes are the chief product, Italy ranking as the 
second wine producing country of the world. Many silk 
worms are raised and raw silk is the chief export. Other 
products are rice, wheat, corn, olives, lemons, and wool. 
Sulphur from Mt. Etna is the most important mineral 
product, and fine marble is quarried. 

20J. What is the most fa^nous city of Italy ? Name 
five other cities. 

Rome, the capital of Italy, is famous for its ancient 
greatness, notable ruins, fine art galleries and magnificent 
buildings. The ruins of the Colosseum and of the Forum, 
the Vatican, the palace of the Pope, with its wonderful 
collection of paintings and statuary, and St. Peter's, the 
largest church in the world, are some of the most noted 
sights of the city. 

Naples, near Mt. Vesuvius, on the beautiful Bay of 
Naples, is the largest city of Italy. Near it are the 
ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 

Milan and Turin are the commercial cities of northern 
Italy. They owe their importance to their location at 
the crossing of the routes of travel and railways of the 



GEOGRAPHY 255 

Alps and the Po valley. Genoa is the natural port of 
these cities and the most important seaport of Italy. 

Venice, the most interesting of European cities, because 
of its location, is the seaport of the Adriatic. 

Florence is famous for its art galleries. 

208. What states occupy the Spanish Peninsula ? Give 
their capitals. 

Spain, the capital of which is Madrid; Portugal, whose 
capital is Lisbon. 

2og. What effect have the highlands of this peninsula 
had upon the climate and industries ? 

In the highlands the winters are very cold and the 
rainfall is light. Much of the southern portion is too 
arid for agriculture. The rivers, except the Guadal- 
quiver, cut through the mountains and are unnavigable 
and useless for irrigation. 

Although the peninsula is well located commercially, 
its elevation is a barrier to commerce. 

210. What are some of the leading products of this 
peninsula f 

Spain produces more quicksilver than any other coun- 
try and ranks next to United States in its output of 
copper and lead. 

Many fine sheep are raised and the sardine fisheries are 
valuable. 

Portugal is a famous wine producing district. Other 
products are cork, olives, grapes, dried fruits and leather. 

211. What are the principal cities ? 
Oporto is the seaport of Portugal. 

Valencia, Barcelona, Malaga, and Cadiz are commer- 
cial and manufacturing cities, as well as the chief seaports 
of Spain. 

Gibraltar, which guards the entrance to the Mediter- 



256 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

ranean and is the strongest fortification in the world, 
belongs to Great Britain. 

212. Who are the Turks f What country do they 
inhabit ? Give leading facts concerning it. 

The Turks are a Mohammedan people of the yellow 
race who came into the Balkan peninsula from Asia. 
They represent a very low and unprogressive type of 
civilization. The only productions beyond raw mater- 
ials, are the famous Turkish rugs and some beautiful 
leather and metal goods. There are few railroads and 
domestic trade does not flourish. Constantinople occu- 
pies one of the strategic points of Europe. It is at the 
crossing of the trade routes from Europe to Asia and 
controls the military and commercial movements of the 
Black sea and eastern Europe. Saloniki is the only 
other important city. 

21 J. Of what country is Athens the capital? For what 
was this country once noted? 

Athens is the capital and most important city of 
Greece, the state which occupies the southern part of the 
Balkan peninsula. 

The chief products of this country are currants, fruits, 
and fine sponges. Shipbuilding is an important indus- 
try. 

Ancient Greece was noted for its advancement in 
literature, art, commerce and government. 

21^. What other states occupy the Balkan peninsula ? 
Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria and Roumania are four 
other states of this peninsula. 

2/5. What of the adva7icement of these states ? 

These states were formerly under Turkish control 
hence their civilization is similar to that of Turkey. 
Their resources are poorly developed and the industries 
are carried on in a very primitive manner. 



GEOGRAPHY 257 

The only cities of any importance are the capitals. 
Belgrade, the capital of Servia; Cetinje, of Montenegro; 
Sofia, of Bulgaria; Bucharest, of Roumania. 

216. What other points should receive attention in the 
study of Europe ? 

It would be impossible to study the geography of 
Europe without giving some attention to the wealth of 
material found in the legends, history, and literature of 
the various countries. The many famous buildings, 
the renowned cities, the noted historical personages, all 
furnish profitable and helpful subjects for study. 

The most important of all these interesting things 
should be brought to the attention of the pupil and made 
to contribute to the interest and value of his study of 
geography. 

2iy. Why should the geography of Europe be of especial 
interest to A mericans ? 

Because this country was discovered and peopled by 
Europeans, and because of the present social, diplomatic, 
and commercial relations between America and the 
nations of Europe. 

218. Which is the largest of the grand divisions? 
Locate it. What of its size ? 

Asia, the largest of the grand divisions, lies in the 
northeastern part of the eastern hemisphere. It includes 
almost one-third of the land of the globe. It extends 
from the equator to about 78 degrees north latitude and 
includes about 150 degrees of longitude. 

2ig. What are the chief featttres of its coast line ? 

Its coast line is broken by many seas, gulfs and penin- 
sulas, and fringed by numerous islands. 

220. Name these seas and peninsulas. 



258 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

The seas on the east are Bering, Okhotsk, Japan, Yel- 
low, East China and South China Seas. On the south 
are the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and Red 
Sea. 

Kamchatka and Korea are the peninsulas on the east. 

On the south are the Malay, Indian, and Arabian pen- 
insulas. 

221. What are the surface features of Asia ? 

The northern part of Asia is a great low plain. Plains 
are also found in the river valleys of the east and south. 

The central part of Asia contains the loftiest moun- 
tains of the world, and many plateaus. 

From Pamir plateau, the highest plateau in the world, 
the mountain ranges branch out like the fingers of a 
great hand — the Thian-Shan, Kuenlun, Himalaya, Sulie- 
man, and Hindu Kush Mountains. 

To the north and east are the Altai, Yablonoi, Stanovoi, 
and Khingan ranges. While in India are the Eastern 
and Western Ghats, and south of the Caspian Sea are the 
Elburz Mountains. 

The plateaus are Iran, Mongolia, Tibet and Dekkan. 

222. What are the chief rivers of Siberia ? Of China ? 
The rivers of Siberia are the Obi, Yenisei and Lena, 

which flow into the Arctic ocean, and the Amur which 
empties into the sea of Okhotsk. 

The Hoang, emptying into Pechili gulf, and the 
Yangtze flowing into the East China sea, are the large 
rivers of China. 

22 J. Name rivers of Asia which flow toward the 
South ? 

The Mekong in Farther India, empties into the South 
China Sea. 

The Irrawaddy in Burma, and the Ganges and Brahma- 
putra of India, empty into the Bay of Bengal. 



GEOGRAPHY 259 

The other great river of India, the Indus, flows into 
the Arabian Sea. 

The Tigris and Euphrates, rivers of Mesopotamia, 
empty into the Persian gulf. 

22^. What of the drainage of central and western 
Asia ? 

The rivers of western and central Asia flow into salt 
lakes. The largest of these lakes or seas are lake Bal- 
kash, the Aral sea, and the Caspian sea. 

22^. In what zones does Asia lie? Tell of the climate. 

Asia lies in all the zones of the northern hemisphere, 
and because of this and its varied elevation, it has many- 
different climates. 

The northern part is extremely cold. Upon the moun- 
tain slopes, except at great elevations and in the central 
latitudes the climate is that of the temperate zone. In 
the south, tropical heat is found. 

226. What are the conditions of plant life in Asia ? 

Northern Siberia is a vast frozen tundra. South of 
this is a forest belt, while farther south are grassy 
steppes. In the tropical regions of southern Asia are 
found the bamboo, palms, rubber trees, spices, dyewoods, 
etc. The rainless regions are deserts. 

22 J. What animals are found in Asia ? 

In the cold north the reindeer furnishes milk and meat, 
and is the beast of burden. The camel is the traveler of 
the deserts. The yak among the mountains, the ele- 
phant and buffalo in the tropical countries, are beasts of 
burden. On the steppes horses, sheep and cattle are 
raised. 

Fur-bearing animals, elk, and wolves are found in the 
north. In the jungles and forests are found the elephant, 
rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, monkey, and poisonous snakes. 



26o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

228. To what races do the people of Asia belong? How 
does Asia compare with the other grand divisions in pop- 
ulation ? 

More than half of the people of the world live in Asia, 
hence it is the most densely populated of the grand 
divisions. Most of the people live in the river valleys or 
near the coast, leaving large portions of the country 
almost uninhabited. Two-thirds of the people of Asia 
belong to the yellow race, the others belong mostly to 
the white race. 

22g. What form of government prevails i?i Asia? 
Why? 

Most of the native governments of Asia are absolute 
monarchies. The people are not far enough advanced to 
organize or carry on a more independent and liberal form 
of government. 

2 JO. Why have the peoples of Asia advanced less than 
the Europeans^ who originally came from Asia ? 

The Asiatic peoples were so cut off by natural barriers 
that they had no opportunity to learn from others. 
Many of them, like the Chinese, became self-satisfied, 
and refused to advance. The wonderful development of 
navigation by the Europeans brought them in touch 
with all the world and gave them many colonies. 

2JI. What are the religioiis of Asia ? 

The people of China, Japan, and Korea are mostly 
Buddhists. Mohammedanism prevails largely in the 
southern and western parts. In India, many of the peo- 
ple are Brahmins. The Greek church is found in 
Siberia. In Asia Minor are many Christians and Jews, 
but the only other Christians are the converts made by 
the American and European missionaries. 

2^2. What part of Asia is known as Asiatic Russia? 
Give leading facts concerning it. 



GEOGRAPHY 261 

The northern and western parts of Asia are known as 
Asiatic Russia. The northern part of Siberia contains 
some mines and a portion of it is suited to agriculture. 
The opening of the trans-Siberian railway will do much 
to develop this country. Irkutsk, near Lake Baikal, and 
Vladivostok, the eastern terminus of the road, are the 
only important cities of Siberia. 

Tashkend, in Turkestan, is in a district where cattle, 
grains and fruits are raised. 

Tiflis in Transcaucasia is the largest city of Asiatic 
Russia. Near Baku are valuable petroleum wells. 

233' ^h(^t European nation controls the Indian Em- 
pire? How did it gain this control? 

The Indian Empire is a part of the British Empire. 
More than three hundred years ago London merchants 
established trading posts on this peninsula. Through 
settling disputes between the native rulers of India and 
in protecting the English traders, Great Britain gradually 
gained control of the peninsula. 

23^. What of the occupations and products ? 

The fertile plains and river valleys of India support a 
dense population. More than three-fifths of the people 
are engaged in agriculture, raising millet and rice for 
their own use. Other products are cotton, wheat, tea, 
opium, indigo, jute and coffee. 

The manufactured goods consist mostly of fine hand- 
made articles. The British have constructed good roads 
in many parts of India and built more than 20,000 miles 
of railroad. This has furthered domestic commerce. 
The foreign commerce of India is nearly as great as that 
of all the rest of Asia. 

233. Are there any large cities in India ? 

Although only about one-twentieth of the people of 



262 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

India live in the cities, yet there are seventy-five cities 
with a population of over fifty thousand. 

2^6. What are the largest of these cities ? 

Calcutta, the largest city, is a seaport on the Ganges 
delta. It is a commercial center and the residence of 
the Viceroy. 

Lucknow, and Benares, the "holy city of the Hindus," 
are also in the valley of this sacred river. Bombay, the 
nearest port to England, has a fine harbor, and is a great 
business center. 

Madras is another commercial and seaport city. 

237' What other Asiatic territory does Great Britain 
control ? In what way are these possessions valuable ? 

The desert country of Baluchistan on the west of India, 
the fertile Burma on the east, and the island of Ceylon 
on the south belong to the Indian Empire. 

Baluchistan makes more secure British control of 
India. 

Burma raises- vast quantities of rice and produces 
rubies, sapphires, and tropical woods. Rangoon exports 
rice, and Mandalay is the largest city. 

Ceylon is one of the greatest tea-producing regions of 
the world. Sapphires, rubies, and beautiful pearls are 
also found. 

2j8. In what division of Asia are the Holy Land and 
Mesopotamia ? What are its cities ? 

Turkey in Asia contains that part of Asia known as 
the Holy Land. It includes the region about the Dead 
Sea and the Jordan River. This is the land where occur- 
red many of the events recorded in the Bible. Here are 
situated Damascus, the oldest city of the world, and 
Jerusalem, the sacred city of the Jews. Mesopotamia, in 
the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, was the seat of 
the civilizations of Nineveh and Babylon, but it has been 



GEOGRAPHY 263 

wasted by many invasions. Bagdad, on a caravan route 
to the east, is the only city of any importance. 

2^g. What three countries lie between India and the 
Turkish Empire ? 
Afghanistan, Persia, and Arabia. 

24.0. What of the civilizatioit and government of these 
countries ? 

The civilization of these countries is of a very low type 
and the government very poor. Many of the people are 
nomads, each tribe being ruled by its own Sheik. 

z/j-i. Give the chief products and cities. 

Fruits and drugs are produced in all these countries. 
Arabia is noted for its fine horses. Persia for its beauti- 
ful hand woven carpets and shawls. On the shores of 
Arabia and Persia precious pearls are found. 

Aden, the chief seaport of Arabia, belongs to Great 
Britain. 

Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, is sacred to all 
his followers, 

Maskat, the capital of Oman, is a seaport from which 
pearls, dates and fruits are exported. 

Teheran is the capital of Persia, and the center of 
caravan trade. 

Kabul, in the mountains of Afghanistan, is the capital. 

24.2. Give brief accowit of Korea. 

Korea occupies the mountainous peninsula north of 
China. Seoul is its capital. 

It became an independent country after the war be- 
tween China and Japan in 1894. Its independence is 
one of the points in the contest between Russia and 
Japan. (1904-05.) 

24^. Where are Bangkok and Singapore ? 



264 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Bangkok is the capital of the native kingdom of Siam 
one of the countries of Indo-China. 

Singapore is the seaport of the Straits Settlements. 

2/I./J.. What of the products of Indo- China ? 

The chief products are rice, sugar, woods, jewels, and 
tin. The foreign commerce, conducted largely by 
Europeans, is very extensive. 

^^5. What is the largest native e^npire of Asia f Tell 
of its population. 

China, which is larger than United States, has more 
inhabitants than any other nation in the world. 

The Chinese live mostly on the river flood plains and 
deltas, making the southern and eastern parts of the 
empire the most densely populated area on the globe. 

24.6. To what race do the Chinese belong f Tell some- 
thing of their civilization. 

The Chinese belong to the Yellow race. In very early 
times this nation developed a remarkable civilization. 
The manufacture of gunpowder, of silk goods, and of 
porcelain ware, the art of printing, and other important 
arts were known to them. 

Their objections to improvements, to labor saving 
machinery, and their many peculiar customs, have hin- 
dered their advance. Consequently the civilization of 
China has very little in common with that of modern 
nations. 

24.J. What are the leading productions of China ? 

Many Chinese are engaged in fishing, but agriculture is 
the most honorable occupation. Rice is raised for food, 
but tea and silk are the chief exports. Bamboo is one of 
the most valuable products, furnishing material for food, 
clothing, shelter, and manufacturing. China has won- 
derful mineral resources but they are not developed. 
The manufactured articles are hand made. 



GEOGRAPHY 265 

2/1-8. What are the ^'■treaty ports?'' 

Foreigners are only allowed to trade in certain ports of 
China. These are known as the ''treaty ports." 

Canton, which is larger than Chicago and noted for its 
silk, and Shanghai are the chief ports of American trade. 

Tien-tsin, the northern terminus of the Grand Canal, 
is the seaport of Pekin, the capital of the Chinese Empire. 

Hongkong, on an island belonging to Great Britain, is 
the center of a large foreign trade. 

2/j.(^. Locate Japan and tell of its surface. 

Japan occupies the chain of islands east of Asia which 
extend from Formosa on the south to the Kurile Islands 
far to the north. 

Much of the surface is mountainous and unfit for culti- 
vation. There are more than fifty volcanoes, the most 
noted of which is Fujiyama, the sacred mountain of the 
Japanese. 

2^0. How do the Japanese rank in civilization ? 

The Japanese are the most civilized of the Asiatic peo- 
ples. Their early civilization resembled that of their 
kinsmen, the Chinese. They held aloof from the rest of 
the world until about the middle of the last century. 
Since 1868 the country has been opened to the world, 
and its progress has been marvelous. 

' 2^1. What are the resources and products of Japan ? 

The well developed mines produce gold, silver, copper, 
iron and coal. The forests of cedar, camphor, and 
lacquer trees are of great value. The fisheries are very 
important. Wheat, sugar-cane and rice are raised. Tea 
and silk are the chief exports. Japan has long been 
noted for its fine porcelain and lacquered ware, and for 
many other beautiful hand-made articles. 

2 §2. What are the principal cities of Japan ? 



266 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Tokio is the capital of Japan. It is the home of the 
Mikado, and has numerous manufactories. 

Yokohama is the chief center of foreign commerce. 
Osaka is noted for its cotton manufacturing, and Kioto is 
in the tea district. 

^53' Wh(^t ^^^ some other topics in the study of Asia 
which will be of interest to pupils ? 

The home life of the Chinese. The characteristics of 
the Japanese and of the Hindus. Modes of travel — 
sledges, caravans, jinrikishas, the trans-Siberian rail- 
road, etc. The sacred cities of Asia. The methods of 
growing tea, rice, silk, and opium. The story of how 
the various European nations gained territory in Asia 
and the wars which the possession of this territory has 
caused. 

^5^. What grand division lies south of Eurasia ? How 
are they separated and co7i7tected? 

Africa occupies the southern part of the eastern con- 
tinent. It is separated from Eurasia by the strait of 
Gibraltar, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, strait of 
Babel Mandeb, and the gulf of Aden. It is connected 
with Asia by the isthmus of Suez. 

2^5 . Give the shape of Africa^ and its coastline and 
surface features ? 

Africa is triangular in shape, with a very regular coast 
line. Its surface is mainly a plateau with a mountain 
rim around it. The Atlas mountains in the north are 
the most important range. 

2^6. In what zones is Africa ? Tell of its climate. 

Africa lies in the torrid zone and warmer temperate 
zones, therefore the climate is tropical. 

In the equatorial regions are tropical forests. These 
forests grade into the savannas or grassy regions, and 



GEOGRAPHY 267 

these in turn become deserts. On the mountain slopes 
of the Mediterranean and along the south-eastern coast 
there is more rainfall. The climate of the interior is 
somewhat modified by its elevation. 

^57- W'hat are the best kriown plants and animals of 
Africa ? 

More than one third of Africa consists of deserts. In 
the oases of the deserts the date palm grows. The camel 
and ostrich are about the only animals of this region. 

In the forest regions are sago and oil palms, rubber 
trees, etc. Here are found many large wild animals — 
the antelope, giraffe, elephant, lion, leopard, rhinoceros, 
gorilla and chimpanzee, and in the rivers the hippopot- 
amus and crocodile. 

2^8. Name the rivers of Africa. 

The Nile which empties into the Mediterranean; the 
Niger, Orange, and Kongo which flow to the Atlantic; 
the Zambezi which empties into Mozambique Channel. 

^5p. What divisions compose Northern Africa ? 
Egypt, the four Barbary States — Tripoli, Tunis, Al- 
geria and Morocco — and the Sahara. 

260. What is the Sahara f 

The Sahara is the largest desert region of the world. 
It occupies a large portion of northern Africa. Because 
of the lack of rain it is mostly a sandy waste. Its chief 
product is salt. It is crossed by caravans which carry 
the products of Central Africa — ivory, skins and ostrich 
feathers — to the coast. One of the chief caravan routes 
is from Tafilet in Morocco to Timbuktu. 

261. Tell of the governm^ent^ products^ and cities of the 
Barbary States. 

^ These states are Mohammedan countries and their 
civilization resembles that of the other countries where 
Mohammedanism prevails. 



268 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Algeria and Tunis are under French control. 

Tripoli is a Turkish province. 

Morocco is ruled by an absolute monarch. 

The products are hand-made leather, woolen, and silk 
goods; olive oil, dates, esparto grass, sponges and coral. 

Fez and Morocco, the capitals of Morocco, and Tan- 
gier; Tunis, the capital of Tunis; Algeria, of Algeria; 
and Tripoli, of Tripoli, are the leading cities. 

262. Why is agriculture the chief occupation of Egypt f 
What are the products ? 

Because this country occupies the flood plain of the 
Nile and the annual overflow of the river makes the soil 
of Egypt fertile. Grains, rice, sugar-cane and cotton 
are raised. 

26^. What is the most important commercial route of 
Egypt? 

The Suez Canal, through which passes a large part of 
the commerce between Europe and Asia. 

26 /J.. How is Egypt governed? 

The ruler of Egypt is called the Khedive, The coun- 
try is nominally subject to Turkey, but in reality, it is 
controlled by Great Britain. 

26^. What are the chief cities ? 

Cairo, the largest city of Africa, is the capital. Alex- 
andria is the seaport of Egypt. 

266. Why is Egypt the most interesting of the African 
countries ? 

Because of its ancient history, its people, and the re- 
mains of its ancient civilization. 

26y. Who are the inhabitants of Central Africa ? Give 
a brief account of this region. 

Central Africa is the true home of the negro. It is 



GEOGRAPHY 269 

only recently that this region has been explored by Eu- 
ropeans. The Sudan is claimed by the French. 

Great Britain, Germany, Italy and Portugal, all exer- 
cise control over large portions of this territory. 

The Kongo Free State was established by the Euro- 
pean powers for commercial purposes. The King of 
Belgium is its ruler. 

The products of this region are palm oil, rubber, ivory, 
varnish gums, hides, and some cotton, sugar, and coffee. 

268. Who cojttrols Madagascar? Canary Islands? 
Cape Verde Islands ? St. Helena ? 

Madagascar is controlled by the French. Its products 
are tropical woods, rubber and coffee. Tananarive is its 
capital. The Canary Islands belong to Spain; the Cape 
Verde and Madeira Islands to Portugal, and St. Helena 
to Great Britain. All these islands are valuable as naval 
stations. 

26g. What of A byssinia and Liberia ? 

Abyssinia is a small native kingdom on the east side 
of Africa. Its people are somewhat civilized, and pro- 
fess Christianity. They produce fine hand-made fabrics. 

Liberia, on the west coast of Africa, was settled by 
negro slaves from United States. Its capital is Monrovia. 

2yo. What part of Africa is known as ^^ South Africa V 
By whom was it first settled? What of the present coit- 
dition of the colonies ? 

South Africa includes the region south of the Zambezi 
River. 

The first important settlement was made by the Dutch 
at Cape Town. When Cape Colony came into possession 
of the British the Boers '''trekked'' northward and estab- 
lished the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. In 
1900 these republics became British colonies. The Ger- 



270 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

mans and Portugese also have possessions in South 
Africa. The colonies of this region are the most flourish- 
ing of all the European colonies of Africa. 

^77. What are the prodiicts of South Africa ? 

Wheat, tobacco, vegetables, grapes, and other agricul- 
tural products are produced wherever the rainfall is 
sufficient or irrigation possible. The most important 
productions are wool, hides, meat and ostrich feathers. 

2^2, For what are Johannesburg and Kimberley noted f 
Johannesburg, in the Transvaal, is in the most im- 
portant gold producing district of the world. 

At Kimberley, in Cape Colony, are diamond mines 
which supply nearly all the world's diamond product. 

^73- What are the commercial cities of South Africa ? 

Cape Town, the capital and largest city of Cape Col- 
ony, has a good harbor. It is connected with the interior 
by a railway line which is a part of the proposed railway 
from Cairo to Cape Town. 

The capital of Portuguese East Africa, Lourengo 
Marquez, and Durban, the seaport of Natal, are also 
connected by rail with the interior. 

2 J /J.. Locate South America and give its coast line 
features. 

South America occupies the southern part of the west- 
ern continent. Its coastline, like that of Africa, is very 
regular, hence there are very few good harbors. 

27 5' Give the location and character of the highland 
and lowland regions. 

The Andes, one of the loftiest mountain systems of the 
world, extend the entire length of the continent on its 
western side, rising from the very seacoast and reaching 
many miles inland. 

On the eastern side is the plateau of Brazil, while the 



GEOGRAPHY 271 

plateau of Guiana occupies the northern part. Neither 
of these plateaus is very lofty. 

The remainder of the continent is a vast lowland. 

2y6. Name the rivers of South America, Account for 
their size. 

The rivers of South America are the Orinoco, Amazon 
and Plata, all of which flow to the Atlantic Ocean. 

The enormous amount of rain which falls on the Atlan- 
tic slope of South America, and the extent of the great 
lowland, give to it some of the greatest river systems of 
the world. 

2jy. In what zones is South America situated? Tell of 
its climate aiid vegetable life. 

South America lies in the torrid and south temperate 
zones. 

The lowlands are hot but the plateaus are temperate. 
The most plainly marked seasons are the rainy and dry. 
Because of the prevailing winds and the position of the 
highlands most of South America is well supplied with 
rain, there being but two regions, — the desert of Ata- 
cama and part of Patagonia — which are arid. 

In the great lowland region are found the forests, or 
silvas of the Amazon ; the low plains, or llanos of the 
Orinoco, and pampas of the Plata. 

2y8. What of the animal life of South America ? 

The animal life of South America is the most varied of 
all the grand divisions. In the forests are many tree- 
dwelling animals, birds, and reptiles. On the plains are 
found deer and the rhea, or South American ostrich. In 
the mountains live the condor, the largest of flying birds, 
and the llama, which is used as a beast of burden. 

2yg. What are some of the forest products of South 
America f 



272 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

India rubber, cinchona, dyewoods, sarsaparilla, timber 
and edible nuts. 

280. What are the inmeral products and where found? 
Gold, silver, and copper are mined in the Andes, but 

the chief mineral product is nitrate of soda which is ob- 
tained from the old lake beds on the western slope of the 
mountains. 

281. What are the chief industries of South America ? 
Where carried on ? 

Herding, agriculture and mining are the chief indus- 
tries. Brazil, and the valleys of the Orinoco and Plata 
rivers are the chief herding and agriculture regions. 
Mining is carried on in the mountains. 

282. What are some of the leading products of South 
America ? 

Brazil produces more coffee than all the rest of the 
world. Other products are sugar, tobacco and cocoa. 

Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, are agricultural 
and herding countries. The principal products are dried 
and cured meats, wool, etc. Argentina is one of the 
great wheat producing countries of the world. Coffee is 
also raised in Venezuela and Dutch Guiana. 

The four tropical Andean countries, Columbia, Ecua- 
dor, Peru and Bolivia, are the mining countries. These 
countries also produce some of the characteristic forest 
and argicultural products of South America. 

28;^. What Etiropean nations settled South America ? 
All of South America except Brazil was settled by the 
Spanish. Brazil was settled by the Portuguese. 

28/}.. What for7n of government prevails in South 
A merica ? 

All the independent states of South America are re- 
publics. 



GEOGRAPHY 



273 



28^. Give the capital and chief cities of Brazil. 

Rio de Janeiro, situated on a fine harbor, and in the 
midst of the coffee plantations, is the capital of Brazil. 
Santos exports coffee. Bahia and Penambuco are the 
ports of the sugar and tobacco districts. Para is the city 
from which most of the rubber, vanilla, and other forest 
products are shipped. 

286. Name the other South Anierica^i states, their capi- 
tals and chief seaports. 

STATES. 

Columbia, 

Ecuador, 

Peru, 

Chile, 

Argentina, 

Uruguay, 

Paraguay, 

Bolivia, 

Venezuela, 



CAPITALS. 

Bogota, 

Quito, 

Lima, 

Santiago, 

Buenos Aires, 

Montevideo. 

Asuncion. 

Sucre. 

Caracas, 



SEAPORTS. 

Maracaibo. 

Guayaquil. 

Callao. 

Valparaiso. 

La Plata. 



Valencia. 



28"/. What and where are Titicaca f Trinidad? 
Pariama ? 

Titicaca is the only large lake in South America. 

Trinidad is an island opposite the mouth of the 
Orinoco, from which asphaltum is obtained. 

Panama is a city on the isthmus of Panama. It is im- 
portant because of its position on the route of the Pana- 
ma canal. 

288. Name the highest peaks of the Andes. 

The volcanoes of Tobina, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, 
Sahama, and Aconcagua, and Mt. Sorata and Mt. 
Illmani. 

28g. Give chief points as to location., coast and surface 
features of Australia, 



274 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Australia is the island continent and lies in the south- 
ern hemisphere. Its outline is very regular, there being 
but two gulfs or bays, and two peninsulas worthy of 
mention. The surface suggests a plate in form, since 
the low interior rises gradually to plateaus and moun- 
tains which often descend steeply toward the sea. The 
highest part of the continent is in the east. 

2go. What of the climate of A ustralia f 

Australia lies in the temperate and torrid zones, but 
because its summer occurs when the earth is nearest the 
sun, and its winters when the earth is farthest away, and 
because of its surface, the summers are very hot, and the 
winters cold. 

2^1. What of the plaiits and animals of this region ? 

The life of this region is peculiar, but well adapted to 
the climate. Many of its forms belong to a class long 
since extinct in other continents. The eucalyptus tree, 
acacias, and myrtles are the best known native plants. 
Of the native animals, the kangaroos, cassowaries and 
emus are most remarkable. 

Wheat and other plants of the temperate zones are 
cultivated. Many sheep, cattle and horses are raised. 

2g2. What mineral product has helped in the develop- 
inent of A ustralia ? 

Gold was discovered in Australia about 1850. This 
brought thousands of people to the continent and led to 
the rapid settlement and development of the country and 
its resources. Gold mining is still of great importance 
and Australia ranks second among the gold producing 
nations. 

2g^. What other minerals are found? 
Coal, copper, iron, silver, tin and limestone are im- 
portant mineral products. 



GEOGRAPHY 275 

2^4.. What is the most important occupation of Aus- 
tralia ? 

Grazing is the characteristic and important occupation. 

2g^. How does this influence the commerce ? 
Wool, frozen and canned meats, and dairy products 
are exported in large quantities. 

2g6. What station controls Australia? How is it 
governed ? 

Australia belongs to Great Britain. Its first settlers 
were convicts, but many free settlers came later. In 
1901 the colonies united to form the Commonwealth of 
Australia. Its government is similar to that of Canada 
and is independent except in those matters which affect 
the entire British Empire. 

2gy. What are the chief cities of A ustralia ? 

One third of the people of Australia live in the capital 
cities. Because of their location as seaports, and as 
seats of the government these cities have become the 
leading commercial centers. 

Melbourne, the largest city of Australia, is the capital 
of Victoria. 

Sydney, the oldest city of Australia, and the capital of 
New South Wales, is noted for its fine harbor. 

Adelaide is the capital of South Australia ; Perth, of 
West Australia; and Brisbane, of New South Wales. 

2^8. What island groups belonging to England^ lie south 
and east of Australia ? 

Tasmania and New Zealand. 

2pp. What are the products and cities f 

Wool, frozen and preserved meats, gold and kauri 
gum are the chief products. 

Hobart is the capital of Tasmania. Wellington is the 
capital of New Zealand, and Auckland and Dunedin the 
chief cities. 



276 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

J 00. What is the general nafne for the island groups 
between Australia and Asia f 
The East Indies. 

301. Of what value are these smaller island groups ? 

These island groups are inhabited by uncivilized natives. 
The only settlements are a few trading ports and coaling 
stations maintained by foreign powers. New Guinea the 
largest of the islands lies near Australia. 

302. What are the products of Borneo., Java, Sumatra, 

and the Celebes? 

Coffee, rice, sugar-cane, spices, camphor, gutta-percha, 
tin, gold, and precious stones are among the valuable 
products. 

joj. To whom do these is la7tds belong f Name the chief 
cities. 

Borneo belongs to Netherlands and Great Britain. 

Sumatra, Java, and Celebes belong to Netherlands. 
These islands are known as the Dutch East Indies and 
owe their development to the enterprise of the Dutch 
merchants and to the wise control of Holland. 

Batavia, on the island of Java, is the largest city and 
the center of the colonial government. 

Northwest of Borneo are the Philippine Islands, which 
belong to United States. The largest city of the East 
Indies, Manila, is located on Luzon, one of these islands. 

J04.. To what extent should the map be used in the study 
of geography ? 

In all study of geography, the child should have the 
map and locate for himself every place about which he 
studies. He should also be taught to look into the 
*'why" of these locations. A map and a question mark 
go hand in hand in the study of geography. 



GEOGRAPHY 277 

J 05. What use should be 7nade of map drawing? 

Mere drawing of maps as exact copies or pieces of 
finished work, has little value. Outline maps, upon which 
children may mark such things as products, surface 
features, rivers and lakes, cities, etc., are valuable, and 
should be used freely. 

^06. How much physical geography should be taught to 
the child ? 

Only those points which can be explained to the child 
and which he can readily understand, should be given to 
him. 

3oy. How should these be taught ? 

Objectively, so far as possible. The smallest stream 
furnishes in miniature all the forms of water and land. 
All knowledge should be based upon the child's ex- 
perience. 

Teach the various points in physical geography as 
they come up in connection with the study of different 
countries, and do not make a special subject of it in 
teaching it to pupils of the grammar grades. 

308. What is the best ^nethod of teaching geography ? 

Geography is best taught by the use of topics and a 
good outline. A few leading facts well taught, and used 
as centers about which to cluster other facts, are of far 
greater value than a mass of unrelated and unclassified 
knowledge. 

jop. Give outlines which might be used i7i the study of 
any of the continents. 

1. Position. 

1. Hemispheres. 

2. Heat belts. 

3. Latitude and longitude. 

4. As to oceans and other continents. 



278 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

2. Natural divisions. 

1. Border waters. 

2. Land forms. 

3. Surface. 

1. Highlands. 

2. Lowlands. 

4. Drainage. 

1. Water partings. 

2. River systems. 

3. Lakes. 

5. Climate. 

1. Varieties and causes. 

6. Political divisions. 

1. Countries. 

2. Capitals. 

3. Principal cities. 

7. Life. 

1. Animal. 

2. Vegetable (products and resources) 

3. Human. 

1. Races. 

2. Population. 

3. Social, religious, and political life. 

4. History. 

8. Occupations. 

9. Comparisons with other countries upon each topic. 
The following outline is arranged for the study of 

United States but may be modified and used in the study 
of other countries. 

UNITED STATES. 
1. Location. 

1. In North America. 

2. As to other continents. 

3. As to oceans (coast line features). 



GEOGRAPHY 279 

4. In heat belts. 

5. In highland and lowland regions of North Amer- 

ica. 

2. Surface. 

1. Highlands — influence upon climate and drainage. 

2. Lowlands — position and extent. 

3. Drainage. 

1. Rivers — where and why. 

2. Lakes. 

4. Productions. 

1. Distribution of plants, animals and minerals as 
determined by surface and climate. 

5. Industries — resulting from this distribution of 

products. 

6. Special consideration of principal products and typi- 

cal industries — mining, cotton raising, lumber- 
ing, etc. 

7. People. 

1. Races. 

2. Government. 

3. Education and general civilization. 

8. Political divisions. 

9. Industrial divisions. 

1. Products and industries of each. Why? 

2. Location of principal cities noted. 

10. Commerce. 

1. Natural conditions which aid commerce. 

2. Commodities — natural and manufactured. 

3. Exports and imports. Why? 

4. Routes of commerce. 

5. Commercial cities. 

11. Comparison of United States with other countries. 

12. Other territory belonging to United States. 



28o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

1. Alaska. 

2. Hawaii. 

3. Porto Rico. 

4. Philippines. 

5. Where located? How acquired? People? 

Products ? 



CHAPTER X. 
HISTORY. 

WE HAVE seen that the education of a large pro- 
portion of the American children does not extend 
beyond the common school. Hence the im- 
portance of beginning their training in history much 
earlier than it was formerly begun. History furnishes 
most valuable material, not only for storing the mind 
with knowledge, but also for the establishment of health- 
ful moral ideals. No subject of the curriculum is more 
fruitful or abundant in the material offered to secure 
these ends. Dr. McMurry well says, in speaking of the 
interest that can be awakened in children, *"This intelli- 
gent interest is awakened first of all by a lifelike picture 
of the personal fortunes of men like Daniel Boone, or 
David, or Alfred the Great. Such biographies open a 
highway into the struggles and dangers of communities 
and young nations. The life stories also of inventors and 
benefactors like Stephenson, Fulton, and Peter Cooper, 
of Florence Nightingale, John Eliot, and William Penn, 
kindle social sympathies of lasting worth." 

In the early years the chief means to be employed are 
story and biography. All children love stories and this 
natural characteristic should be employed in fixing his- 
torical truths, while the lives of great men will form 
centers around which important events and epochs may 
be grouped. Nor is this all, the story of these lives will 
stimulate noble ideals in the children and lead them to 

♦"Special Methods in History," p. i. Macmillan, New York. 



282 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

desire to emulate the characters which have been por- 
trayed to them. 

To quote again from Dr. McMurry: "There are cer- 
tain lofty characters, like Alfred the Great, Caesar, Char- 
lemagne, Luther, Alexander, Isabella, Cromwell, and 
Napoleon, who have taught the world such commanding 
lessons that every child should have a chance to grasp in 
a few points the significance of their lives." Again he 
says, "Children should begin history as soon as they can 
take a strong and intelligent interest in its simpler 
phases." 

Let us now turn our attention to the question. What 
should be the aim of the study of history? Tlie tendency 
of modern times is to give less attention to wars, diplo- 
macies, exploits of kings, or individuals, and devote more 
time to those matters that mark the progress in civiliza- 
tion among the nations of the world. Green in his 
"Short History of the English People" states the purpose 
to be, "To dwell at length on the incidents of that con- 
stitutional, intellectual, and social advance in which we 
read the history of the nation itself." McMaster, in 
his great work "A History of the People of the United 
States," outlines his purpose — a purpose to which he con- 
sistently holds — as follows: "In the course of this narra- 
tive much, indeed, must be written of wars, conspiracies, 
and rebellions; of Presidents, of Congresses, of embas- 
sies, of treaties, of the ambition of political leaders in 
the senate-house, and of the rise of great parties in the 
nation, yet the history of the people shall be the chief 
theme. At every stage of the splendid progress which 
separates the America of Washington and Adams from 
the Arnerica in which we live, it shall be my purpose to 
describe the dress, the occupations, the amusements, the 
literary canons of the times; to note the changes of 
manners and morals; to trace the growth of that humane 



HISTORY 283 

Spirit which abolished punishment for debt, which re- 
formed the discipline of prisons and jails, and which has, 
in our time, destroyed slavery and lessened the miseries 
of dumb brutes. Nor shall it be less my aim to recount 
the manifold improvements which, in a thousand ways, 
have multiplied the conveniences of life and ministered 
to the happiness of our race; to describe the rise and 
progress of that long series of mechanical inventions and 
discoveries which is now the admiration of the world 
and our just pride and boast ; to tell how, under the 
benign influence of liberty and peace, there sprang up, 
in the course of a single century, a prosperity un- 
paralleled in the annals of human affairs; how, from a 
state of great poverty and feebleness, our country grew 
rapidly to one of opulence and power; how her agricul- 
ture and her manufactures flourished together; how, by 
a wise system of free education and a free press, knowl- 
edge was disseminated, and the arts and sciences ad- 
vanced; how the ingenuity of her people became fruitful 
of wonders far more astonishing than any of which the 
alchemists had ever dreamed." 

It is not to be expected that the children of the com- 
mon school will gain so comprehensive a view of history 
as above outlined; but it is Avell for the teacher to pos- 
sess this view, thereby being able to approach the subject 
from no narrow standpoint. The teacher possessing such 
a view will give his pupils a much truer conception of 
the real character of history than one who conceives his- 
tory to be a mere record of wars, and of the rise and 
downfall of nations. 

Finally, the study of history offers most natural oppor- 
tunity for practical correlation. Geography, literature, 
and reading must be closely related to the work in his- 
tory. Maps, pictures, poems, stories, biographies are 
to be utilized. Indeed, history cannot be successfully 



284 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

taught without taking these other subjects into account, 
and material which belongs to other work should also be 
freely employed here. Thus while enriching the mind 
with knowledge concerning the past, the judgment is 
trained, the imagination stimulated, the will strength- 
ened, the memory made retentive. The chief end in the 
study of history will be lost if the children are not made 
more patriotic, in the true sense, and if they do not 
learn from the lives of the heroes of the past, and from 
great events lessons of morality and religion. 

What do we mean by history ? Dr. Harris says, in 
answer to the question, "History is a window of the soul 
that looks out upon the deeds of the race. " Dr. Hinsdale 
says, "In the broadest sense, history is the story of man 
living in social relations in the world, as traced in 
various records and memorials.'* 

Questions and Answers. 

/. What can be said of the inhabitants of America ? 

Little is known of the first inhabitants of America. 
Throughout both continents are found remains of tem- 
ples, bridges and ancient cities, indicative of an advanced 
stage of civilization. Thousands of curiously con- 
structed mounds bespeak the military power and religious 
zeal of an ancient race. The Indians had no knowledge 
or tradition of the origin of these remains or of the 
people who built them. We give to these people the 
name of Mound Builders. 

2, Who were the Indians f Why so called ? 

The Indians were the race found in America by Colum- 
bus. He supposed he had reached the East Indies, and 
therefore called the people Indians. 

J. What evidence have we that the Lidians were a 
distinct race from the Mound Builders? 



HISTORY 285 

The Indians are not a progressive race. They have 
produced no permanent or high-class examples of archi- 
tecture, such as were left by their predecessors. The 
utensils, weapons and implements found in the mounds 
are not such as were used by the Indians. 

^. What discoveries were made by the Northmen ? 
Were these discoveries of any beiiefit ? 

The historical records of Iceland assert that America 
was discovered by the Northmen in 1002. Claim is also 
made of a settlement in Greenland, the exploration of the 
eastern coast as far south as New England, and the 
establishment of a temporary trading post. No perma- 
nent settlements were made, the route was lost and the 
existence of the continent eventually forgotten. 

5. What inve7itions of the fiftee?ith cejitury had an influ- 
ence in the discovery of A merica ? 

(a) The invention of printing, resulting in the publi- 
cation of books of travel by Marco Polo and Sir John 
Mandeville. 

(b) The compass, by use of which sailors could venture 
farther from land. 

6. What was the great co^mnercial problem of this cen- 
tury ? Why ? 

The finding of an all-sea route to India. The trade 
with the East had been greatly hindered by the taking of 
Constantinople by the hostile Turks (1453). 

y. By whom, had atteinpts been made to find this route ? 

By Portuguese navigators, who, sent out by King John 
II and Prince Henry, had sought to reach the East by 
sailing around the southern point of Africa. 

8. What was Columbus's plan ? 

To sail directly west across the Atlantic, as he believed 
the earth to be round. 



286 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

g. Give a brief account of the voyages made by Columbus ? 

Columbus spent eighteen years in his efforts to secure 
means by which to carry out his plans. At last, assist- 
ance was given him by Isabella, Queen of Spain. His 
equipment consisted of three small ships — the Santa 
Maria, Nina, and Pinta~and one hundred and twenty 
men. They sailed from Palos, Spain, August 3, 1492. 
After a voyage of seventy-one days, they landed on one 
of the islands of the West Indies, Friday, October 12, 
1492. Columbus named this island San Salvador. He 
also visited Cuba and Haiti. 

On his second voyage, Columbus explored Jamaica and 
the neighboring islands; on the third, he visited Trini- 
dad and the coast of South America ; on his fourth and 
last voyage, he explored the coast of Darien. 

10. How was America named? 

Americus Vespucius, an Italian in the service of Por- 
tugal, made a voyage along the coast of Brazil. Wald- 
seemiiller, a German geographer, published a letter 
describing this voyage and suggested that the new world 
be called Amerigo — the land of Americus, or America. 

//. What nations took an active part in the exploration 
of North America ? 

Spain, England, France, and Holland. 

12. What were the leading motives which prompted 
these explorations ? 

Religious zeal, love of adventure and commercial inter- 
ests, especially the search for gold. 

jj. Give leading facts concerning the other Spanish 
explorers and discoverers. 

Ponce de Leon — founded San Juan, Porto Rico, 1511 ; 
discovered Florida, 1512. 

Balboa— discovered the Pacific Ocean, while ascending 
the mountains of Panama, 1513. 



HISTORY i^'j 

Magellan — sailed on the Pacific Ocean, gave to it its 
name, and crossing it, completed the first voyage around 
the world, 1519-1521. 

Cortez — explored and conquered Mexico, 1519-1521. 

DeSoto — planned a conquest of Florida; discovered 
the Mississippi River, 1541. 

Melendez — founded the first permanent settlement at 
St. Augustine, 1565. 

7^. What parts of the New World were explored by the 
Spanish ? 

Central America, Mexico, Peru, Florida, the Mississippi 
Valley, New Mexico, and the coasts of California. 

75. Name the French explorers. 

Verrazani — explored the coast from Newfoundland to 
North Carolina. This was the foundation of the French 
claim in America. 

Cartier— explored and named the Gulf and River St. 
Lawrence. Visited Montreal, 1535. 

Champlain — established the authority of France on the 
banks of the St. Lawrence. Discovered Lake Champlain. 

Marquette and La Salle — explored the lake region and 
the Mississippi Valley, 1682. Named the country 
Louisiana. 

16. What parts of North America were explored and 
claimed by the French ? 

The St. Lawrence and Great Lake region; the Ohio 
and its tributaries; the Mississippi to the Gulf. They 
claimed all the basin of the latter. 

77. Who were the early English Explorers ? 

John and Sebastian Cabot — visited the shores of Lab- 
rador and Newfoundland, 1497. 

Sir Francis Drake — the first Englishman to explore the 
Pacific coast and to circumnavigate the globe, 1579. 



288 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Frobisher — tried to find the northwest passage to Asia, 
1576. 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert — made an unsuccessful attempt 
to establish a colony in Newfoundland, 1583. 

Sir Walter Raleigh — sent out an expedition which 
explored and named Virginia, 1584. Also made two 
attempts to plant a colony on Roanoke Island. Both 
failed. 1587. 

Gosnold and Pring — visited the coasts of New England, 
carrying back cargoes of sassafras and furs. 1602. 

iS. What was the English claiin in A merica ? 

The English claim, based on the voyage of the Cabots, 
extended from Florida to Labrador, and westward to 
the Pacific. 

ig. What part of America was visited and claimed by 
the Dutch ? 

Henry Hudson, an English navigator in the Dutch 
service, entered the harbor of New York and ascended 
the river which now bears his name— (1609). Upon this 
discovery the Dutch based their claim to the territory 
extending from the Delaware River to Cape Cod. 

20. Why did so fnuch time elapse between the discovery 
and settlement of North A merica f 

The hostility of the natives, jealousy among rival 
claimants to the country, the absence of any great object 
of conquest, the distance from Europe, and the lack of 
means of transportation, tended to delay the colonization 
of this country. 

21. When., where and by what nations were the first 
permanent settlements in America made? 

1565. — Spanish at St. Augustine. 

1582. — Spanish at Santa Fe. 

1605. — French at Port Royal, Nova Scotia. 



HISTORY 289 

1607. — English at Jamestown. 
1608. — French at Quebec. 
1613. — Dutch at New Amsterdam. 
1620.— English at Plymouth. 

22. What companies were formed in England for the 
colonization of America? 

The London Company, which was to have lands be- 
tween the 34th and 38th parallels; and the Plymouth 
Company, whose grants were between the 41st and 45th 
parallels. Both grants extended from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific. 

2j. What is said of the Charter granted these com,panies f 
It contained no idea of self government and had no 
regard for the rights, wishes, or needs of the colonists. 
Councils appointed by the King, were to control all 
affairs of the colonies. The Church of England was to be 
maintained. The proceeds of all labor were to go into a 
common fund. 

2^. What is a Charter ? How did it differ from a 
Patent ? 

A charter was a grant of land by a sovereign power, 
by which under certain conditions, title to the land was 
conferred, a form of government defined, and certain 
rights and privileges secured to the people. 

When the grant was made to a colony or a company it 
was called a charter, but when given to an individual, it 
was known as 2. patent. 

2^. What names are associated with the settlement of 
f ante st own ? 

Captain Newport, who commanded the company. 

Captain John Smith, whose bold and determined char- 
acter, combined with wisdom and foresight, saved the 
colony from ruin. 



290 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, who is said to 
have saved Smith's life. She afterward married John 
Rolfe, an English planter. 

26. What was the Starving Time ? 

Dtiring the winter of 1609-10, Smith having returned 
to England, the colonists fell victims to laziness, disease 
and famine. They were reduced in six months from 490 
to m. 

2'j. What was the House of Burgesses ? 

An assembly, consisting of the governor, council, and 
two "burgesses" from each borough, met in Jamestown, 
June 30, 1619, to consider the affairs of the colony. This 
was the first legislative body ever assembled in America 
and was known as the "House of Burgesses." 

28. How was slavery introduced into the country f 

In 1619, the captain of a Dutch trading vessel sold 
twenty negroes to the colonists. As their labor proved 
profitable in the cultivation of tobacco, many more were 
imported. 

2g. How were wives obtained, by the settlers ? 

In 1620, the London Company induced one hundred 
and fifty reputable young women to embark for Virginia. 
Each planter gave one hundred pounds of tobacco for his 
wife. 

JO. How did Virginia become a Royal Province ? 

King James became jealous of the republican senti- 
ments of the London Company, took away the charter, 
and placed the colony under the direct control of the 
king. 

J 7. Who were the Cavaliers ? 

The Cavaliers were English Royalists, who espoused 
the cause of Charles I. During the commonwealth 



HISTORY 291 

many of them emigrated to Virginia and afterward be- 
came prominent in the affairs of the colony. 

J2. WJio were the Puritans ? Separatists ? Pilgrims ? 

The Puritans were dissenters from the Church of Eng- 
land, who desired a purification from its old observances 
and doctrines. For this they were called Puritans. 

Some of them believing that any body of Christians 
might declare itself a church, broke oft from the estab- 
lished church and formed local churches. These were 
called Separatists. 

A band of these, being persecuted in England, took 
refuge in Holland. After some years^ not wishing to 
have their children grow up as Dutchmen, they came to 
America. These were the Pilgrims. 

jj. Give a brief account of Plymouth Colony. 

On December 21, 1620, the Mayflower, with one hun- 
dred and two Pilgrims landed at Plymouth in Cape Cod 
Harbor. Before going ashore, they entered into a com- 
pact agreeing to enact just and equal laws which all 
should obey. During the first years there was much 
suffering. The plan of working in common having failed, 
land was assigned to each settler. They were permitted 
to choose their own governors and make their own laws. 
In 1692 Plymouth became a part of Massachusetts Bay 
Colony. 

j^. Who were John Endicott and Governor Winthrop ? 
- They were the leaders of the Puritans who settled at 
Charlestown, Salem, and Boston. 

J5. What was the feeling in Massachusetts Bay Colony 
toward those of other religious beliefs f 

They were intolerant of all but Puritans. Quakers 
were punished and exiled. Roger Williams, a Baptist 
minister, being banished, fled to Rhode Island and 
founded Providence. 



292 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

j6. What other settlements were made in New England f 

Maine and New Hampshire were settled by Gorges and 
Mason. 

The New Haven Colony was founded by wealthy Lon- 
don families. 

The Connecticut colony, founded by John Steele and 
Thomas Hooker, adopted the first written constitution 
ever framed by the people. 

J/. What two colonies were granted charters f 
Rhode Island and Connecticut. 

J 8. What colonies were united in i64jf Whyf 
A union of the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Ply- 
mouth, New Haven, and Connecticut was formed under 
the title of the United Colonies of New England. 

The object was protection against the Indians, Dutch 
and French, and the securing of a more stable local 
government. 

jp. What was the most notable Indian War in the his- 
tory of New England? 

King Philip's War, 1675. 

It grew out of the jealousy of the Indians at the en- 
croachments of the whites. Many settlers were killed, 
but the Indians were finally overcome and Philip was 
shot by one of his own tribe. 

^0. What was the Salem Witchcraft f 

It was persecution against supposed witches. It began 
at Salem in 1692, and created great excitement through- 
out New England. Before it was over, about twenty 
innocent people, mostly old women and Indians, were 
put to death by the magistrate, supported and urged on 
by the clergy. 

/fi. Who was Cotton Mather ? 



HISTORY 



293 



Cotton Mather was a prominent minister in the Mas- 
sachusetts Bay Colony. He took an active part in the 
prosecution of persons charged with witchcraft. He 
was, however, a profound scholar and the leading theo- 
logian of his day. 

/J.2. Who were the patroons f 

The Dutch West India Company who controlled New 
Netherlands, in order to encourage farming in its domain, 
offered a large tract of land to anyone who would estab- 
lish a colony of fifty persons above fifteen years of age. 
This proprietor was called a "patroon" and was abso- 
lute ruler of whatever colonies he might establish. 
He was bound to transport the fifty settlers to New 
Netherlands at his own expense; to provide them with 
a well stocked farm and farming implements ; to charge 
a low rate of rent ; to employ a schoolmaster and a min- 
ister of the Gospel. In return the emigrant bound 
himself to cultivate the land for ten years; to bring his 
grain to the patroon's mill; to use no cloth not made 
in Holland; to sell his products to no one but his patroon, 
unless the latter so ordered. 

^j. Who were the Dutch Governors f 
Minuit, Van Twiller, Kieft and Stuyvesant. 

^4.. When and how did New Netherlands become New 
Yorkf 

In 1664 an English fleet anchored in the harbor of New 
Amsterdam and demanded the surrender of New Nether- 
lands in the name of the Duke of York, to whom this ter- 
ritory had been granted by Charles II. Despite the re- 
monstrances of Stuyvesant, the council surrendered, and 
the colony was named New York in honor of the 
proprietor. 



294 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

^5. How was New Jersey settled"^ 

The Duke of York granted the land between the Hud- 
son and the Delaware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
Carteret. It was called New Jersey in honor of Carteret, 
and the first English settlement made at Elizabethtown, 
1664, was named for his wife. 

The two parts East and West Jersey were united and 
made a part of New York, but were afterwards set apart 
as a distinct royal province. 

/J.6. Who founded the Quaker Colony'^ What city did 
he also found '^ 

William Penn. Philadelphia, which means "brotherly 
love." 

^7. What was the Great Law f 

It was a code agreed upon by Penn and the settlers. 
It made faith in Christ a qualification for voting and 
office holding, but granted religious toleration. 

^8. What was Mason and Dixon's Linef 

It was a boundary fixed between Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania by two surveyors, Mason and Dixon (1763-67). 
It separates the former slave from the free states. 

4-g. When, where, and by who7n was the first settlement 
made in Delaware ? 

In 1638, by the Swedes, near Wilmington. 

^0. By who'm was the colojiy of Maryland established'^ 
Why f 

By Lord Baltimore, a Catholic, who sought a refuge for 
his friends. 

57. Who settled the Car Unas ? 

English from Virginia, Dutch from New York, and 
Huguenots from France. 

^2. What was the Grcnid Model f 



HISTORY 295 

A form of government prepared for the colonies by- 
Lord Shaftesbury and John Locke. It provided for the 
division of the land into vast estates and granted heredi- 
tary titles, but it made no provision for self-government 
or personal liberty. It, therefore, found no favor with 
the colonists. 

5J. What colony did Oglethorpe founds Why? 

Georgia, 1732, as a home for English debtors. 

5</. What was the real cause of the Inter -Colonial Wars? 

The natural enmity of the French and English and the 
desire of each for supremacy in America. 

55. Give a brief outliiie of each of these wars. 

King William's War (1689-1697). 

Port Royal taken by the colonists. 
War ended by treaty of Ryswick. 
Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). 
Port Royal taken again. 

War ended by treaty of Utrecht, and Acadia ceded 
to the English. 
King George's War (1744-1748). 

Louisburg taken by the English. 
War ended by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Louisburg was given back to the French and the 
boundaries left unsettled. 
French and Indian War (1754-1763). 

French ports captured by the English. 

The taking of Quebec, the Gibraltar of America, 

the most important and final event of the war. 
War ended by the treaty of Paris, which ceded all 
of North America, east of the Mississippi, to the 
English. 

^6. What was the effect of the French and Indian War ? 
The colonists were united, thousands of resolute men 



296 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

were trained in the use of arms and to face an enemy, 
democratic ideas had taken root and the seeds of liberty- 
had been sown. 

57. Into what three industrial groups may the colonies 
be divided? 

The New England Colonies, where the people were 
seamen and traders and depended upon home made 
manufactures. 

The Middle Colonies in which farming was the leading 
occupation. 

The Southern Colonies, where large plantations were 
found, labor was performed by slaves; there were no large 
towns, and the planters lived a life of leisure and ease. 

^8. Give the divisions hi the government of the colonies ? 

(1) The charter colonies (Connecticut, Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island.) 

(2) Proprietary colonies (Delaware, Pennsylvania, 
Maryland.) 

(3) Royal or provincial colonies (New Hampshire, New 
York, New Jersey, Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia.) 

jp. When was the first printing press used in A 'tnerica ? 
What was the first newspaper f 

At Cambridge in 1639. 

The Boston News-Letter, which appeared in 1704. 

60. What was the beginning of our free public scJiool 
system ? 

A public school was established in Boston in 1635,' and 
in 1649 a law was passed providing for the free public 
education of every white child in Massachusetts. 

61. What colleges were founded by the colonists ? 
Harvard (1636). William and Mary (1692). Yale 

(1700). 



HISTORY 297 

62. What was the first important book written by an 
American ? 

Cotton Mather's "Magnalia," a religious history of 
New England. 

6^. What great men did the colonial times produce ? 

Jonathan Edwards, theologian; Benjamin Franklin, 
statesman and philosopher; James Otis and Patrick 
Henry, orators. 

6^. What were the causes of the Revolutionary War f 
The remote causes were: 

(1) The alienation from the mother country 
through diverging interests. 

(2) The exercise of freedom in local government 
which had been permitted. 

(3) Military and other jealousies, growing out of 
the French and Indian War. 

(4) The subordination of colonial industries to 
British interests. 

The immediate cause was the attempt of Great Britain 
to govern and tax the colonists, without allowing them 
representation in Parliament. 

65. What acts of Parliament were especially distasteful 
to the colonists ? 

(1) The Navigation Act, requiring all goods to be 
carried in English vessels. 

(2) The Stamp Act, requiring a British stamp on all 
legal documents, newspapers, etc. 

(3) The Mutiny Act, ordering the colonies to provide 
food and shelter for British troops. 

(4) The Townshend Acts, further enforcing the Mutiny 
Act and trade laws, and taxing glass, paints, paper and 
tea. 

66. What led Parliament to pass the ^^Five Intolerable 
Actsr 



298 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. 

(5/. What were these ' ^Intolerable Acts /" 
:"" (1) Boston Port Bill, closing the port of Boston. 
"7r(2) Transportation Bill, authorizing the sending of 
persons out of the colony for trial. 

S^(3) Massachusetts Bill, appointing a military governor 
and forbidding public meetings. 

(4) Quartering Act. 

(5) Quebec Act, enlarging the province of Quebec and 
including territory claimed by Massachusetts, Connect- 
icut and Virginia. 

68. To what did these '"''Acts'' lead? 

To the calling of the First Continental Congress at 
Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. 

dp. What was done by this Congress ? 

It agreed to hold no commercial intercourse with Great 
Britain. It issued a "Declaration of Rights" asserting 
the rights of the colonists to life, liberty, property; power 
of taxation, right to petition and peaceable assemblage; 
and charter rights. It sent a petition to the king and 
ordered another congress to be held May 10, 1775, to take 
action on this petition. 

yo. What were the first battles of the Revolution ? Their 
effects ? 

Lexington, April 19, 1775. 

Bunker Hill, June 19, 1775. 

They intensified and strengthened the determination 
to resist British tyranny, and united the colonists still 
further. * 

7 J. What important measures were taken by the Second 
Continental Congress ? 

War was declared and George Washington was ap- 
pointed Commander-in-Chief. 



HISTORY 299 

y2. When was the Declaration of Independe^ice adopted f 
By who^n prepared ? 

July 4, 1776. 

It was written by Thomas Jefferson, assisted by Ben- 
jamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, John Adams, and 
Robert Livingstone. 

yj. Give a brief account of Washington' s Army. 

Washington took command of the army in the spring 
of 1776. He forced the British to evacuate Boston, but 
failed to resist them successfully in the vicinity of New 
York, and was finally driven through New Jersey to Phila- 
delphia. He won the battles of Princeton and Trenton, 
in the winter of 1776-1777, kept Cornwallis at bay in 
New Jersey during the summer, and in the autumn 
gathered his forces at Philadelphia. After the British 
victories at Brandywine and Germantown, he evacuated 
Philadelphia and went into winter quarters at Valley 
Forge, remaining there until the spring of 1778. 

The British under Clinton, having left Philadelphia, 
Washington attacked their army at Monmouth, fighting 
a severe but indecisive battle. From this time on he 
held possession of the region about New York and Phila- 
delphia. In the autumn of 1781, he led his swift-march- 
ing army to the south, where, aided by the French, he 
compelled the surrender of Cornwallis and his entire 
army at Yorktown, October 19, 1781. This was the last 
important event of the war, the treaty of peace being signed 
in 1783. 

'j^. Name some of the most prom^inent w,en of Revolution- 
ary times and tell for what known. 

Ethan Allen, leader of the Green Mountain Boys. 

Lafayette, a Frenchman; Pulaski and Kosciusko, 
Polish patriots; Steuben, a Prussian soldier; — foreign- 
ers who helped the Americans. 



300 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Robert Morris, the financier. 

Nathan Hale, the martyr spy. 

Benedict Arnold, the traitor. 

Paul Jones, the naval hero. 

Marion, Wayne, Gates, Greene, colonial generals. 

Howe, Clinton, Burgoyne, British generals. 

75. How did the colonies become states ? 

During the Revolution, all the royal governors having 
either fled or been imprisoned, Congress advised the 
colonies to form governments for themselves. By the 
adoption of constitutions, they were no longer British 
colonies, but sovereign states. 

y6. What were the Articles of Confederation ? 

The first general constitution of the new states was 
called the Articles of Confederation. As it had no tax- 
ing power, or power to regulate trade, it was unsuited to 
the needs of the country. 

77. What was the origin of the Public Domain ? 

At the close of the Revolution all the states holding 
western lands ceded their rights to the general govern- 
ment. 

y8. What was the origin of the territories ? 

Congress provided for the sale of these newly acquired 
lands, and established a plan of government for them. " 

This plan — the famous Ordinance of 1787 — ordered that 
this region should be called "The Territory of the United 
States northwest of the Ohio River." 

7p. When was the Constitution adopted? When did it 
go into effect ? 

It was adopted by the convention September 17, 1787, 
ratified by the last of the requisite number of states 
June 21, 1788, and became actually effective upon the 
inauguration of Washington, April 30, 1789. 



HISTORY 301 

80. What two political parties arose about the time of 
the adoption of the Constitution ? 

The Federalists, who favored a strong national govern- 
ment and were led by Alexander Hamilton. The Anti- 
Federalists, who advocated the sovereignty of the state, 
and were led by Thomas Jefferson. 

81. Tell something of the organization of the new gov- 
ernment under Washington. 

The departments of State, War and Treasury were 
formed. The various courts were established. Revenue 
laws were passed. A national bank was chartered and a 
mint established. 

82. What was the result of these financial measures ? 
The rise of the earlier Republican Party. 

8^. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws f 

The Alien Law gave the President power to expel from 
the country any foreigner whom he deemed injurious to 
the United States. Under the Sedition Law, anyone 
libeling the President, Congress, or the Government, 
could be fined or imprisoned. 

84.. Why did United States purchase Louisiana? Why 
was Napoleon willing to sell it ? 

Spain having ceded Louisiana to France, the naviga- 
tion of the Mississippi was closed to the citizens of the 
United States. This aroused the people, and, in order to 
avert war, Jefferson obtained consent of Congress to buy 
New Orleans and West Florida. 

Napoleon, who needed funds to carry on his war with 
England, offered to sell the whole province for fifteen 
million dollars. 

8^. What was the Embargo Act ? 



302 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

A measure of Congress forbidding American vessels to 
leave port. 

86. What caused the ' ' War for Commercial Indepen- 
dence'' ? With what nation was it zvaged ? Give date. 

(1) The arousing of the Indians by British emissaries. 
(2) The sending of English cruisers to stop and search 
our vessels. (3) The impressing of American sailors. 
(4) The interfering with our trade by Orders of the 
Council. 

It was carried on with Great Britain, 1812-1814. 

8j. What were the leading events of this war ? 
Perry's victory ; Battles of Lundy's Lane, the Thames, 
and New Orleans. 

88. What were the effects of this war ? 

While the treaty of peace (signed at Ghent in Decem- 
ber 1814) did not mention the things which caused the 
war, yet they were conceded. 

The position of the United States as a maritime power 
was established. At home the war had done more to 
create a national sentiment and consolidate the union 
than any previous event in the history of the country. 

8g. Name some things which hifluenced tJie industrial 
progress of the United States^ during the first twenty- five 
years of her history as a nation. 

The invention of the cotton gin ; discovery of hard 
coal; introduction of the carpet mill, and sewing thread. 

go. How were manufactures fostered? 

The Embargo Act threw the people on their own re- 
sources, hence manufactures became a necessity. Mills 
were built, prizes were offered for home-made articles, 
societies were formed pledging their members to use only 
articles made in this country. 



HISTORY 303 

p/. What improvements had be en made in transportatioji ? 
Many roads and highways had been built and the 
steamboat invented. 

g2. What changes zvere made in boundary lines during 
Monroe's Administration ? 

The Canadian boundary from the Lake of the Woods 
to the Rocky Mountains was fixed at the forty-ninth 
parallel. The northern boundary of Oregon was estab- 
lished at 54°40'. 

By the purchase of Florida and a treaty with Spain the 
southern boundary of the Louisiana territory was changed 
from the Rio Grande to a line extending irregularly from 
the Sabine river to the Rocky Mountains and westward 
along the forty-second parallel to the Pacific Ocean. 

pj. What causes influenced entigratio7i to the West at 
this time ? 

The decline of trade in the East, the cheap land in the 
West, and the defeat of the Creek Indians by Jackson 
which opened their lands to settlement. 

p^. What was the result of this rapid settlement of the 
Mississippi Valley ? 

It led to the organization of the territories of Arkansas 
and Florida, and the admission into the Union of Indiana, 
Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine and Missouri. 

Pj. What question was brought up by the admission of 
the last named states f 
The question of slavery. 

g6. Give a brief account of slavery up to this time. 

Slaves were first brought into the country in 1619. 
While the colonies were under the control of Great 
Britain slavery existed in all of them, but as soon as they 
became independent it was gradually abolished in all but 
six of the original thirteen states. 



304 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The Ordinance of 1787 forbade slavery in the North- 
west Territory, but it was allowed in the Southwest 
Territory. * 

The question of slavery was one of the subjects consid- 
ered by the men who framed the Constitution but they 
left it unsettled. 

With the invention of the cotton-gin the production of 
cotton became more profitable and the demand for slaves 
increased. 

In 1807 further importation of slaves was prohibited. 

In 1820 there were twenty-two states in the Union, 
eleven of which were slave, and eleven free. The divid- 
ing line between these states was the southern boundary 
of Pennsylvania and the Ohio River. As yet there were 
no slave states west of the Mississippi River. 

gj. What was the Missouri Compromise ? What were its 
provisions ? 

It was a measure designed to "settle" this question of 
slavery. Henry Clay was its great supporter. It pro- 
vided: 

(1) That Maine should be admitted as 'a free state, 
and Missouri as a slave state. 

(2) That the Louisiana Purchase should be divided 
by the parallel 36° 30.' 

(3) That slavery should be forever prohibited in 
all other states north of this Compromise Line. 

(4) That the states south of this dividing line 
should be admitted either slave or free as they 
might choose. 

g8. What was tJie Colonization Society ? 

It was an association formed to provide a refuge for 
freed slaves. A colony, Liberia, was established in 
western Africa, and its capital called Monrovia. 

pp. What led to the Monroe Doctrine f 



HISTORY 305 

The attempt made by Russia to plant colonies in Cali- 
fornia. The interference of the Holy Allies with the 
affairs of the newly formed South American Republics. 

100. What was the Monroe Doctrine ? 

In his annual message to Congress December 2, 1823, 
President Monroe declared: 

(1) That the American continents were no longer open 
to colonization by European Nations. 

(2) That the United States would not meddle in the 
political affairs of Europe. 

(3) That European governments must not extend their 
systems to the nations of this hemisphere, nor oppress 
them, nor in any other way seek to control their destiny. 

loi. What changes had taken place in the political par- 
ties during Monroe's Administration ? 

The Federalist Party ceased to exist after 1816 and for 
twelve years there was one great party, the Republican, 
or as it was soon called, the Democratic Party. 

102. What was the effect of the settlement of the west 
on trade and cpmmerce ? 

It opened a fine market in the west for eastern manu- 
factures, and led to the development of trade routes and 
the construction of canals and railroads. 

70J. What was the first public comm,ercial route ? 

The National Road. It began at Cumberland, Mary- 
land, crossed the Alleghanies to Wheeling and was even- 
tually extended as far as Illinois. 

lo/f.. What great highway was built by New York State? 
Why? 

The Erie Canal. 

The steamboats on the Ohio and Mississippi were 
carrying the western trade to New Orleans thus greatly 



3o6 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

injuring the eastern markets. In order to regain this 
trade a cheaper method of transportation was necessary. 
Hence the building of the Erie Canal from the Hudson 
at Albany, to Lake Erie at Buffalo, 1817-1825. 

705. When were the first steam locomotives used in 
United States ? 

In 1830. Previous to this cars, were drawn by horses. 
106. What was the ''^Portage Railroad T' 

As the first locomotive could not climb a steep hill, 
cars were pulled up or let down the hills on an inclined plane 
by a rope and stationary engine. When Pennsylvania built 
her railroad over the Alleghanies many of these inclined 
planes were used. This "Portage Railroad," as it was 
called, was the most remarkable piece of railroading in 
the world. 

loy. What political parties sought to control national 
affairs during the administration of John Quincy Adams? 

The National Republicans — later known as Whigs — 
who favored a protective tariff for the encouragement of 
home manufactures, and a general system of internal 
improvements. 

The Republicans — henceforth known as Democrats — 
who opposed these measures. 

108. What practice in official appointments was intro- 
duced by President Jackson ? 

He removed persons holding government offices and 
gave these positions to his political friends, thereby 
establishing the principle of "rotation in office," or "To 
the victor belong the spoils." 

log. What were the leading questions during Jackson's 
administration ? 

The tariff, the re-charter of the National Bank, the use 
of surplus revenue. 



HISTORY 307 

110. Upon what national question did the North and 
the South differ ? 

Slavery, internal improvements and protective tariff. 

///. What caused this difference ? 

The difference in the occupations of the two sections. 

The North was engaged largely in manufacturing, and 
wished protection from foreign competition, and the 
best commercial facilities. None but skilled laborers 
were employed, hence this section had no use for slaves. 

Agriculture was the occupation of the South. Slave 
labor was profitable. An open market was desired for 
their products, and a tariff increased the price of the 
manufactured articles which they must purchase. 

112. What was the Nullification Act? What principle 
did it involve ? 

South Carolina, opposing the protective tariff, declared 
the tariff acts "null and void" and forbade the payment 
of duties within the state. 

John C. Calhoun, who favored this Act, declared that 
a state had the right to set aside any act of Congress 
which it deemed unconstitutional, and also the right to 
secede from the Union. 

iij. How was this difficulty settled? 
By Clay's Compromise Bill of 1833, which provided for 
a gradual reduction of the tariff. 

ii/j.. For what was the presidential contest of 1 8^2 noted? 

For the fact that a new piece of political machinery 
was introduced — the national convention for the nomina- 
tion of candidates — and also for the first use of a party 
platform. 

7/5. Give a brief account of the Bank of the United 
States. 

Congress chartered the Bank of the United States in 



3o8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

1816. By this charter branches of the Bank might be 
established in any cities it pleased. This brought oppo- 
sitioh from the state banks, and Jackson sympathizing 
with this feeling, vetoed the bill for a new charter. 
Later he ordered the government's funds to be with- 
drawn from this 'Bank and to be deposited in the state 
banks. 

As a result many state banks were chartered,— some 
in order to obtain deposits of public money; others that 
their founders might speculate with the paper money 
issued. 

ii6. What caused the surplus revenue? What was 
done with it ? 

A large revenue was derived from the tariff and from 
the immense sale of public lands. 

The country had no debt and the expenses of the gov- 
ernment were not heavy. As a consequence the govern- 
ment had more money than it needed. 

By order of Congress, this surplus was divided 
among the states according to the number of their Sena- 
tors and Representatives. This was known as the United 
States Deposit fund. 

iiy. What Indian Wars occurred in Jackson's time? 
Cause ? 

The Black Hawk War in northern Illinois (1832). 

The Florida War (1835). 

Owing to the westward emigration of the white set- 
tlers, the Indian tribes were removed to new reservations 
beyond the Mississippi. The Sacs and Foxes, and the 
Seminoles objected to this removal and refused to give 
up their lands, and the wars followed. 

1 1 8. Who was Jackson's successor ? 
Martin Van Buren. 



HISTORY 309 

iig. What characterized his administration ? 

His entire term was a period of great financial distress 
throughout the country. 

120. What cattsed the panic of i8jy ? 

The "specie circular" issued by Jackson required all 
payments for public lands to be made in specie. The 
division of the surplus revenue withdrew the government 
funds from state banks. Much gold and silver had been 
sent to Europe in payment for the heavy importation of 
goods. Thus there was little specie left. 

All this forced the banks to call in their loans and re- 
fuse credit. This in turn depreciated the value of 
property, closed factories, and caused business failures. 
Individuals, states, and national government were alike 
bankrupt. 

121. What was the Independent Treasury ? 
President Van Buren advocated the establishment by 

the government of an independent treasury at Washing- 
ton, with branches, or sub-treasuries in the chief cities. 
A Sub-treasury Bill was passed in 1840. It was repealed 
later, re-enacted again, and is the system now in force. 

122. What war aroused A tnerican sympathies at this 
time ? 

The "Patriot War," a Canadian rebellion against Brit- 
ish rule. 

12;^. To what did the establishment of regular steam- 
ship lines between Europe and United States lead? 
To a great emigration of Europeans to this country. 

1 2 /J.. What was the Anti-slavery Movement ? 

It was a movement which had for its object the aboli- 
tion of slavery. In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison estab- 
lished an anti-slavery paper called the "Liberator." In 



3IO SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

1833 the American Anti-slavery Society was formed. 
Much opposition was aroused in both North and South 
by this movement. In 1844 Congress passed the famous 
"Gag rule" which forbade the receiving of any petition, 
resolution or paper relating in any way to slavery. As a 
result of this last measure a new political party was 
formed, known as the Anti-slavery or Liberty Party. 
Its first presidential candidate was nominated in 1840. 

12^. What were the political conditions at the time of 

Harrison's election ? 

Owing to the financial difficulties of Van Buren's time 
the people had lost confidence in the Democratic policy. 
The Anti-slavery movement had drawn some men from 
both parties into its ranks. The Whigs, with Harrison, 
the hero of Tippecanoe, as their leader, were victorious 
over their opponents, the Democrats, who had controlled 
national affairs for forty years. The death of Harrison 
one month after his inauguration, made Tyler, who had 
always been a Democrat, president. 

126. What attempts were made to restore the ' ^Bank of 
the Un ited States ? ' ' 

The Whigs repealed the Sub-treasury Bill, and then 
presented two bills to charter the Bank. 

Both of these bills were vetoed by Tyler. 

I2J. What troubles occurred at this time growing out of 
old colonial laws ? 

Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. Under the charter 
granted by Charles II., only property owners could vote. 
A new state constitution was adopted which was contrary 
to the old charter. The new governor. Dorr, was not 
recognized as being legally elected. His attempt to hold 
his office caused the rebellion. 

The Anti-Rent trouble in New York. The tenants of 
the old "patroon" estates refused to pay their rent de- 



HISTORY 311 

daring the old rental laws to have been abrogated by the 
Revolution, and attacked the collecting officers. 

128. Give an accotutt of the Mormo?is. 

In 1840 a settlement was founded at Nauvoo, Illinois, 
by a new religious sect known as Mormons. Their lead- 
er, Joseph Smith claimed to have received a direct revel- 
ation from heaven which he called the Book of Mormon. 
Later he announced the doctrine of polygamy. This en- 
raged the neighboring settlers and Smith was killed hy 
them. Brigham Young, who now assumed control of the 
community, knowing that the people of Illinois were un- 
friendly, decided to move farther west. With two thou- 
sand followers he crossed the Mississippi, and after a 
brief stay in Iowa, led his band to Utah, then in the 
dominion of Mexico. Here by their industry and thrift 
they have transformed the desert into a thriving and 
prosperous state. 

I2g. What was the Webster-Ashburton Treaty ? 

In 1842, a treaty was negotiated between the United 
States and Great Britain, by which the boundary between 
Maine and New Brunswick was settled. 

7J0. What were the leading questions of the campaign 
of 184.4.? 

The occupation of the whole of Oregon, and the an- 
nexation of Texas. 

iji. What territory was claimed by the United States 
as included in Oregon ? 

All the land lying west of the Rocky Mountains and 
between the parallels of 42° and 54° 40'. 

1^2. Who was Marcus Whitman ? 

In 1832, four Flathead Indians visited St. Louis in quest 
of the "White man's Book of Heaven." Their request 



312 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

for the Bible became known and four missionaries were 
sent out. One of these was Marcus Whitman. He 
reached Walla Walla in 1836, and in five years more than 
one hundred and twenty-five emigrants had followed him. 
In 1842, fearing the encroachments of English settlers. 
Whitman journeyed to Washington and laid the claims 
of Oregon before the President, and as a result many 
thousands settled there during the next few years. 

/jj. How was the Oregon boundary settled? 

A treaty was made with Great Britain by which the 
northern boundary of Oregon was fixed at the forty-ninth 
parallel, and this vast region was made a territory of the 
United States in 1848. 

7j^. What was the work of John C. Fremont ? 

Through the efforts of Senator Benton of Missouri, 
Fremont was sent by Congress in 1842, to explore and 
survey a route to Oregon. 

In 1846 the white settlers of California revolted against 
the Mexican government and proclaimed California an 
independent republic. Fremont assisted the Americans, 
the Mexicans were defeated, and California held until the 
arrival of Kearny. 

7J5. By whom was New Mexico take7i ? 

In 1846 General Kearny was sent to take New Mexico 
and California. He journeyed from Ft. Leavenworth to 
Santa Fe, which he took without opposition, and declared 
the whole state to belong to the United States. Journey- 
ing on to California he found it had been conquered by 
Fremont and his followers. 

1^6. Why was there opposition to the annexation of 
Texas ? 

(1) Because the boundary bet\^ieen Texas and Mexico 
was unsettled and war with Mexico was likely to ensue. 



HISTORY 313 

(2) Because slavery existed in Texas and therefore the 
free states opposed her admission. 

ijj. Who was president during the Mexican War? In 
what years was the war carried on ? 

James K. Polk. In 1846-1847. 

ij8. Who were the leading American generals of the 
Mexican War and what battles did each win ? 

General 7j2,Q\i2irv Taylor, who won the battles of Palo 
Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey and Buena Vista ; 
General Winfield Scott who took Vera Cruz, was victor- 
ious at Cerro Gordo, and captured the city of Mexico 
and the entire Mexican army. 

ijg. What was the Wilmot Proviso ? 

President Polk asked Congress to appropriate a sum 
of money with which to purchase territory from Mexico, 
thus settling the boundary question and ending the war. 

David Wilmot offered a bill granting the money, pro- 
vided all territory bought should be free soil. This 
excited violent debate, but never became a law. 

1^0. What territory was acquired by the Mexican War? 

All of Texas, and the territory reaching south from 
42° north latitude to the Gila River, and westward to the 
Pacific. By the terms of the treaty Mexico received 
$15,000,000. 

7^7. When was gold found hi California ? 
In February 1848, by a workman who was digging a 
mill race in the Sacramento Valley. 

I/J.2. What was the effect of this discovery ? 
A rush of emigrants to the Pacific coast. 

7^j. What great question arose in tJie beginning of 
Taylor's Ad^ninistratiofi ? 



314 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

California applied for admission to the Union as a free * 

state. This aroused intense agitation on the subject of 
slavery. 

7^^. What was the Omnibus Bill? What were its 
provisions ? 

It was the compromise of 1850, presented by Henry 
Clay. It provided: 

(1) That California should come in as a free state. 

(2) That the territories of Utah and New Mexico 
should be formed without any restriction on slavery. 

(3) That Texas should be paid $10,000,000 to give up 
her claim on New Mexico. 

(4) That the slave trade should be prohibited in the 
District of Columbia. 

(5) That a fugitive Slave Law should be enacted. 

7^5. What was the Fugitive Slave Law ? 

It was a law providing for the return to their owners 
of slaves who had escaped to a free state. It com- 
manded all good citizens to aid in the capture of the 
fugitive, and prescribed fine and imprisonment for any 
one who harbored such a person or prevented liis recap- 
ture. 

14.6. What was the ^^Underground Railroad?'^ 
It was a system organized in the North, by which fu- 
gitive slaves were protected and assisted in making their 
way to Canada. 

7^7. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill? 

It was a bill presented in Congress by Stephen A. 
Douglas, soon after Pierce became president. It virtu- 
ally repealed the Missouri Compromise by providing that 
the people of the territory should decide whether or not 
slavery should exist there. It became a law in 1854. 

i/j.8. What was meant by ^'Squatter Sovereignty ?'' 



HISTORY 315 

This doctrine of allowing the people of a state to decide 
the slavery question for themselves was called "Squatter 
Sovereignty." 

1/j.g. What was the Gadsden Purchase ? 

A dispute having arisen with Mexico regarding the 
boundary line, General Gadsden negotiated a settlement 
and $10,000,000 was paid to Mexico for additional terri- 
tory along the Gila River. 

750. What hnportant commercial treaty was rdade iji 

1854. ? 

Commodore Perry visited Japan at this time with the 
United States fleet. He negotiated a treaty with that 
country by which two ports were opened to American 
merchants. 

75/. What was the state of the political parties iji 18^6 ? 

The Democratic party favored slavery. The Whig 
party was broken up, and many of its members now ad- 
hered to the Free-Soilers. In 1856 the National Repub- 
lican party was formed and the Free-Soilers joined it, and 
so disappeared from politics as a party. 

A third party at this time was the American or Know- 
Nothing party whose chief tenet was that none but 
native Am.ericans should hold office. 

At the election held that year the Democrats were 
victorious, and James Buchanan was elected president. 

1^2. What was the Dred Scott Decision ? 

Dred Scott was a slave who had been taken by his 
master into free territory and afterwards back to the 
slave state of Missouri. 

Claiming that residence on free soil made him a free 
man, Scott sued for freedom. This brought up the 
question as to whether Scott was a citizen of the Union 
and thereby had a right to sue in its courts. And also 



3i6 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

brought into controversy the validity of the Missouri 
Compromise. The Supreme Court decided that Scott 
was not a citizen; that slave owners might carry 
slaves to any state without forfeiture of property 
rights; and that the Missouri Compromise was null and 
void. 

75J. What zvas the '"''Lecompton Constitution f" 

The pro-slavery party of Kansas framed this constitu- 
tion, and attempted, by the aid of President Buchanan, 
to force its adoption and the admission of Kansas as a 
slave state. Their attempt was defeated through the 
efforts of Senator Douglas of Illinois, who declared such 
action to be contrary to the doctrine of "popular sov- 
ereignty." 

75^. In what way did Abraham Lincoln come into 
prominence at this time ? 

Through a series of debates with Stephen A. Douglas 
of Illinois, with whom he contested for the senatorship 
of that state. 

755. What were the Personal Liberty bills ? 

In many of the free states Personal Liberty bills were 
passed securing to fugitive slaves, when arrested, the 
right of trial by jury. 

75(5. Who was John Brown and what did he attempt to 
do? 

John Brown was one of the anti-slavery men who took 
an active part in the contest in Kansas. In 1859, having 
moved to Harper's Ferry, Virginia, he, with less than 
twenty followers, seized the United States arsenal and 
proclaimed freedom to all slaves in that vicinity. He 
was arrested on the charges of murder and treason 
and was hanged. 



HISTORY 317 

757. What was the great question before the nominating 
conventions in i860 ? 

The question of slavery. 

1^8. What were the leading parties^ and what did 
each advocate ? 

(1) The Lincoln, or Republican party, which denied 
all sympathy with any kind of interference with slavery 
in the slave states, but protested against its extension 
into free territory. 

(2) The Douglas Democrats who favored "squatter 
sovereignty." 

(3) The Breckenridge Democrats who affirmed that 
slavery could be carried into any territory and that the 
Federal government must protect it. 

(4) The Bell, or Constitutional Union Party, whose 
motto was, "The Constitution of the Country, the Union 
of the States and the enforcement of the laws." 

75p. What was the result of this contest ? 
The election of Abraham Lincoln. 

160. For what is the period between i8jo and i860 
noted? 

For the emigration westward, the opening and settle- 
ment of new territory, the filling up of the region be- 
tween the Alleghanies and the Mississippi River, the 
rapid growth of cities, the building up of the Pacific 
states, and the large immigration of foreigners. 

161. What were some of the new social and com7nercial 
conveniences of this tiine ? 

The use of gas and anthracite coal, paved streets, 
express companies, postage stamps, ocean steamships, 
expansion of railroads, and free schools. 

162. What three inventions have revolutionized the 
industrial world? 



3i8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The sewing machine of Elias Howe, 1846. 

The McCormick harvester, first patented in 1831, but 
not used to any extent before 1845. 

The electric telegraph, the invention of Saumel F. B. 
Morse, which was patented in 1837, and put into success- 
ful operation between Washington and Baltimore in 1844, 
and between New York and Philadelphia in 1845. 

i6j. What were some other valuable inventions and 
discoveries ? 

The vulcanization of rubber by Goodyear. 

The perfecting of the daguerreotype so that pictures of 
landscapes and people could be taken. 

The discovery of anaesthesia by Dr. Morton which 
revolutionized the practice of surgery. 

i6^. What of the industrial conditions at this time ? 

Gold had been discovered in California, petroleum in 
Pennsylvania, and silver in Nevada, thus giving an im- 
petus to mining. 

The many-labor saving devices and machines had 
fostered manufacturing. With the extension in the area 
of the country and its industries, commerce, both foreign 
and domestic, had greatly increased in importance and 
value. 

i6^. Tell of the formation of the ^^Confederate States 
of America.'' 

In December 1860, a convention appointed by the 
legislature of South Carolina declared "that the union 
now existing between South Carolina and other states 
under the name of the United States of America is here- 
by dissolved." Soon after Mississippi, Florida, Ala- 
bama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas, joined South Caro- 
lina in this act of secession. In February 1861, a con- 
vention of delegates from these states met, formed a 
constitution, established a government and elected Jef- 



HISTORY 319 

ferson Davis, President, and Alexander H. Stephens, 
Vice-President. After the attack on Fort Sumter, 
Arkansas, Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee 
joined the Confederacy and the capital was moved to 
Richmond, Virginia. 

166. Why did the Southern States secede ? 

According to the statement of Jefferson Davis their 
reasons were as follows: "Your votes, " said he, "refuse 
to recognize our domestic institutions (slavery), which 
pre-existed the formation of the Union, our property 
(slaves), which was guaranteed by the Constitution. 
You refuse us that equality without which we should be 
degraded if we remained in the Union. You elect a 
candidate upon the basis of sectional hostility, one who 
in his speeches made a distinct declaration of war upon 
our institutions." 

i6y. What did Lincoln state in his inaugural address 
to be his purposes ? 

(1) That he had no purpose of interfering in any way 
with slavery in the states where it existed. 

(2) That he considered the Union unbroken. 

(3) That he wished to execute its laws in all the states 
without violence. 

(4) That he would use the power confided in him to 
hold and control all government property. 

168. What were the chief causes of the Civil War ? 

(1) The different construction put upon the Constitu- 
tion by the people of the North and the South. 

(2) The difference in the occupations of the two 
sections. 

(3) The questions relating to slavery. 

(4) The want of understanding and intercourse be- 
tween the people. 



320 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

(5) The evil influence of sectional literature and politi- 
cal demagogues. 

i6g. What were the opening events of the Civil War ? 

The firing on the steamer "Star of the West" as it was 
carrying supplies to the United States troops at Fort 
Sumter, January 29, 1861. 

The bombardment of Fort Sumter by the Confederates 
under General Beauregard, April 12, 1861. 

I JO. What was the effect of these events ? 
The unification of both the North and the South. A 
call by Lincoln for 75,000 volunteers. 

lyi. Where was the line which divided the two sections ? 

It extended from Chesapeake Bay across Virginia, cen- 
tral Kentucky and Missouri, to New Mexico. 

I'j2. What were the objects sought by the Union armies 
in the west ? 

The opening of the Mississippi and the breaking of the 
Confederate line. 

//J. By what battles were these objects accomplished? 

1862 — Forts Henry and Donelson. Shiloh. Island 
No. 10. Capture of New Orleans. luka and Corinth. 

1863 — Murfreesboro. Vicksburg. 

The Mississippi was now open to the Gulf, the Confed- 
erates had been driven out of Missouri and Arkansas, 
and the Confederacy was cut in two. 

I J /J.. What two great battles were fought in Tennessee ? 
Results ? 

Chickamauga, September 19-20, 1863. 

Chattanooga, November 24-25, 1863. 

By these successes the Union army gained control of 
East Tennessee and the way was opened to the heart of 
the Confederacy. 



HISTORY 321 

175' ^A/ ^^-^ ^^^ capture of Atlmita important ? 

Georgia was the workshop and storehouse of the Con- 
federacy and after the capture of its capital the supply 
of equipments was greatly reduced. 

iy6. Tell of Sherman's campaigns. 

In May 1864, Sherman with 100,000 men advanced 
against the Confederates under Johnston who were sta- 
tioned at Dalton, Georgia. After four months of hard 
marching, with ten pitched battles and many lesser 
engagements, Sherman forced Hood (who had succeeded 
Johnston) to evacuate Atlanta. 

Hood took his army to Tennessee where it was de- 
stroyed later by Thomas at the battle of Nashville, 
(December 15-16.) After Hood's departure, Sherman 
burned Atlanta, and started toward the sea. Little was 
heard of his army until Christmas when Lincoln received 
a telegram from Sherman presenting to him as a Christ- 
mas gift the city of Savannah, which he had captured. 

777. What was the next move made by Sherman ? 

After resting with his troops at Savannah, in February 
1865, Sherman started northward through the Carolinas. 
He met the Confederates in several severe battles, 
joined two other divisions of the Union Army at Gold - 
boro, S. C, where he awaited the development of Grant's 
plans for the final struggle. 

iy8. What was the first battle fought by the Union 
ar'tny in tJie east f Effect ? 

The battle of Bull Run. 

It resulted in the defeat of the Union army, showed 
that the South ready for war, aroused the people 
of the North to renewed effort, and led to a systematic 
organization and drilling of the Union forces. 

ijg. What was the object of the Army of the Potomac? 



.,'iV - 



322 SEELE V'S Q UESTION BOOK 

The capture of Richmond. 

i8o. What battle checked Lee's first invasion of the 
North ? 

The battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862. 

i8i. What action zvas taken by President Lincoln at 
this time ? 

Immediately after the battle of Antietam, Lincoln 
issued the Emancipation Proclamation which declared 
that if the Confederate States did not return to their 
allegiance before January 1, 1863, "All persons held by 
them as slaves shall be then, henceforth and forever 
free." 

182. What two reasons had Lincoln for his action ? 

(1) Heretofore the object of the war had been the 
preservation of the Union. By making it a war for free- 
dom and union, the North would be more in earnest. 

(2) England was waiting for a pretext to recognize the 
Confederacy. If the war became one for the abolition of 
slavery England would not dare take such a step. 

i8j. What battle is considered the turning point of the 
war ? 

The battle of Gettysburg, July 3, 1863, which ended 
Lee's efforts to invade the North. 

184.. Why was the blockade of the Southern ports im- 
portant ? 

Because it prevented the exportation of southern prod- 
ucts and the importation of military supplies. 

i8S' What was the most important naval engagement of 
the civil war ? Why ? 

The battle between the ironclads — the Merrimac and 
the Monitor. 

The resistance by the Monitor prevented the Merrimac 



HISTORY 



323 



from further harming Union ships, and from opening the 
Southern blockade. 

186. What was the final event of the war ? 

The capture of Richmond, and the surrender of Lee to 
Grant at Appomattox Courthouse, April 9, 1865, 

i8y. Name ten Federal Generals. 

Meade, Grant, Sherman, Hooker, Burnside, Logan, 
Sheridan, Hancock, Banks and McClellan. 

188, Name six battles won by the Union army, 

Shiloh, Antietam, Vicksburg, Gettysburg, Atlanta, 
Nashville. 

i8g. Name ten Confederate Generals. 
Lee, Bragg, Smith, Jackson, Early, Beauregard, Hood, 
Polk, Longstreet, Price. 

igo. Name six Confederate victories. 
Bull Run, Fredericksburg, Ball's Bluff, Chickamauga, 
Chancellorsville, Spottsylvania. 

igi. What important event occurred April /^, 186^ ? 

President Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes 
Booth. 

ig2. What was the "most important question with which 
President Johnson had to grapple? 

The reconstruction of the Southern States. 

jpj. How was the Reconstrtcction accomplished ? 

President Johnson recognized the state governments 
which had been formed during the war under the protec- 
tion of the Union army in four of the Southern States. 
In the other states he prescribed methods for the forma- 
tion of loyal governments. He then claimed that all the 
states legally belonged to the Union and should be re- 
stored to their rights. 



324 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Congress repudiated these claims of the President and 
declared that he had no right to name the conditions for 
the re-admission of the seceded states. 

Tennessee was admitted, but all the other states were 
placed under military rule. During the next three years 
all the states but Virginia, Mississippi and Texas were 
restored to their places. These three were re-admitted 
in 1870 but took no part in the presidential elections until 
after Grant's first administration. The troops were 
finally withdrawn from the South by President Hayes. 
In 1894 the law providing for federal supervision of 
elections was repealed and each state controlled its own 
elections as before the war. 

ig^. What were the Civil Rights^ Freedmen's Bureau 
and Tenure of Office Bills ? 

The Civil Rights Bill gave the negroes all rights of 
citizenship. 

The Fveedmen's Bureau Bill provided for the sale of 
public lands to negroes on easy terms, and gave them 
military protection for their rights. 

The Tenure of Office Bill prohibited removal of per- 
sons from civil offices by the president, without the con- 
sent of the Senate. 

7p5. What additions were made to the Constitution as a 
result of the Civil War ? 

The Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery. 

The Fourteenth Amendment, which guaranteed civil 
rights to all. 

The Fifteenth Amendment, which enfranchised the 
negro. 

ig6. What were some other importa7it events of John- 
son's Administration ? 

The removal of the French troops from Mexico, and 
the overthrow of Maximilian. 



HISTORY 



325 



The purchase of Alaska from Russia. 
The treaty with China which granted valuable com- 
mercial privileges to the United States. 

igy. Tell of the Atlantic cable. 

The first cable was laid from New York to St. John's, 
Newfoundland, in 1856. Two years later the first trans- 
Atlantic cable was laid but it ceased to work in a short 
time. 

In 1866, through the enterprise of Cyrus W. Field, 
success was attained and telegraphic cable communica- 
tion between the two continents established. 

ig8. Outline the important events of Grant's two terms. 

(1) The opening of the Pacific Railroad, by which fa- 
cilities for transportation from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
3,350 miles, were completed. 

(2) The adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment. 

(3) The great fires — the Chicago fire; forest fires in 
Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota; the Boston fire. 

(4) The Panic of 1873, caused by the failure of Jay 
Cooke & Co., and resulting in financial stringency and 
stagnation of business throughout the counlr}'. 

(5) The war w^ith the Modoc and Sioux Indians and 
the massacre of General Custer. 

(6) The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. 

(7) The treaty of Washington, by which the Alabama 
claims were settled with Great Britain. 

(8) The organization of "Trades' Unions," out of 
which grew the Labor Reform Party. 

(9) The first national convention of the Prohibition 
Party. 

iQg. Give an account of the election of i8j6. 
The candidates for the presidency were Rutherford B. 
Hayes of Ohio, and Samuel J. Tilden of New York. The 



32b SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

election was closely contested and the result was in 
doubt. In several states both parties claimed the vic- 
tory. In order to decide the matter Congress appointed 
a Joint Electoral Commission, consisting of five Repre- 
sentatives, five Senators, and five Justices of the Supreme 
Court, to examine the returns. This Commission de- 
cided that Hayes had received 185 electoral votes and 
Tilden 184. Therefore the Republican candidates, Hayes 
and Wheeler, were declared elected. 

200. What changes in currency occurred about this time? 
In 1873 the coinage of silver dollars was stopped, silver 

demonetized and gold made legal tender. 

In 1878 the Bland- Allison Silver Bill was passed. It 
provided : 

(1) That silver dollars be again coined, at the ratio of 
16 to 1. 

(2) That silver should be legal tender for all debts. 

(3) That silver bullion should not be coined free, but 
that the Secretary of the Treasury was to buy not less 
than $2,000,000, nor more than $4,000,000 worth of 
bullion each month and coin it into dollars. 

January 1, 1879, the government resumed specie pay- 
ment, and for the first time since 1862 gold was at par. 

201. What labor troubles occurred in iSjy ? 

The first great general railroad strike. It was caused 
by a general reduction of wages. Beginning on the 
Baltimore and Ohio, it quickly spread to other lines until 
traffic was paralyzed on nearly all roads in the Northern 
States. Riots occurred in many cities. At Pittsburg 
more than one hundred lives were lost and much property 
destroyed. 

202. Name the presidents of the United States since i88o. 

James A. Garfield) -,qqi ioqj- 
Chester A. Arthur f 1^81-1885 



HISTORY 327 



Grover Cleveland 1885-1889 
Benjamin Harrison 1889-1893 
Grover Cleveland 1893-1897 
William McKinley 1897-1901 
William McKinlev 



^, , ^ , r 1901-1905 

Theodore Roosevelt 

Theodore Roosevelt 1905 

20 J. What have been the fi^iancial issues during the past 
twenty -five years ? 

The financial issues during this period have been in a 
general way connected with the agitation over the free 
coinage of silver. 

In 1890, the Sherman Act provided for larger purchases 
of silver than the Bland-Allison Bill authorized. This 
bullion was to be paid for in treasury notes which were 
redeemable in gold or silver. In 1893, because of this 
silver purchase and other "gold" obligations the sum be- 
came so great as to cause doubt as to our ability to pay 
in gold. Silver had decreased in value so that the bullion 
value of a dollar was about sixty-seven cents. This de- 
preciation and the shortage of gold led to business de- 
pression and "tight money." President Cleveland called 
a special session of Congress and the compulsory purchas- 
ing clause of the Sherman Act was repealed. Later bonds 
were issued in order to maintain the "gold reserve." 

In 1900, during President McKinley's administration, 
an act was passed expressly adopting the gold standard 
of money and making it the duty of the treasury to main- 
tain all our money on a parity with gold. 

20^. What has been 07ie of the leading political questions? 

The^ tariff question. In general the Democrats have 
favored a low tariff or "tariff for revenue only," while the 
Republicans have advocated a protective or high tariff. 

In 1890, the McKinley Bill was passed increasing the 



328 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

rate of protective duties, but granting reciprocity to such 
countries as should by treaty, make like concessions to us. 

At the next session of Congress the Democrats passed 
the Gorman- Wilson Act which slightly reduced the 
average tariff. 

Again, in 1897, the Republicans enacted the Dingley 
Bill which was similar in many respects to the McKinley 
Bill of 1890. 

20^. What was the Presidential Succession Law ? 

The Constitution provided that in case of the death or 
removal of the President that the Vice President should 
succeed him, and that if both should be removed Con- 
gress had the power to declare what officer should then 
act as President. 

By an act of Congress, 1792, it was provided that in 
event of a vacancy in both offices, the President pro tem- 
pore of the Senate, or if there was none, the Speaker of 
the House should act as President. When President 
Garfield died and Arthur became President, there was no 
President pro tempore of the Senate nor Speaker of the 
House, as the Forty-Sixth Congress was at an end, and 
the new Congress would not assemble until December. 
Had Arthur died there would have been no President. To 
provide against such a condition in the future, a Presiden- 
tial Sucession Law was passed in 1886. It places the order 
of succession as follows: President, Vice President, Sec- 
retary of State, Secretary of War, Attorney-General, 
Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of 
the Interior. 

2o6. What was the Civil Service Bill? 

In 1883, a law was passed which aimed to regulate the 
appointment and promotion of persons in the civil service 
of the government. Such appointments and promotions 
are made on the basis of competitive examinations and 
merit, and no official can be removed without cause. 



HISTORY 



329 



2oy. iVhat reforms have been made in elections ? 

In most of the states the Australian ballot system has 
been adopted. The object of this reform was to diminish 
corruption at elections. The system requires the adop- 
tion of an official ballot which is printed at public ex- 
pense, and enforces absolute privacy for the voter in the 
preparation of his ballot. 

208. What great labor strikes have occurred since 1880? 

The Haymarket riot in Chicago, 1886. The steel 
strike and Homestead riots in Pennsylvania and mining 
troubles in Idaho and Tennessee in 1892. The railroad 
strike at Chicago in 1894, which President Cleveland 
ended by ordering United States troops to the scene of the 
troubles. The anthracite coal strike, in 1902, caused by 
the refusal of the mine owners to accede to the demands 
of the miners. Settled by an arbitration commission ap- 
pointed by President Roosevelt. In 1904 the troubles in 
the mining districts of Colorado. 

20(). What important laws have resulted from the great 
industrial issues of the last quarter of a century ? 

The Inter-state Commerce Act, the Anti-Chinese laws, 
the Anti-Contract Labor law, the law establishing the 
Labor Bureau. 

210. What is the Inter -State Commerce Act? 

By this act, passed in 1887, the railroads are placed 
under the supervision of commissioners whose duty it is 
to see that all charges for passengers or freight are 
reasonable and just, and that no unjust discrimination be 
made between shippers. 

211. What was the Anti-Chinese movement ? 

Soon after the discovery of gold in California many 
Chinese laborers were sent to this country by foreign 
capitalists. In 1868 it was made a penal offense to take 



330 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Chinamen to America without their free consent. In 
accordance with a modification of the old Burlingame 
treaty, a law was passed in 1882 forbidding the admis- 
sion of any Chinese laborers for ten years, and the law of 
1888 forbade the return of any Chinese laborer who had 
once left the country. In 1892, this law was again en- 
acted for another ten years. In 1902, the restrictions of 
the previous Chinese exclusion laws were confirmed and 
extended to the islands belonging to the United States. 

212. What were the provisions of the Anti-Contract 
Labor law ? 

This law, enacted in 1885, forbade any person, com- 
pany, or corporation to bring any foreigners into the 
United States under contract to perform labor or service. 

21^, What is the object of the Labor Bureau ? 

The Bureau of Labor, established in 1888, has for 
its object the distribution among the people of the United 
States of useful information upon subjects connected with 
labor. In 1904 the Department of Commerce and Labor 
was established, and its head made a member of the cab- 
inet. 

21^. What have been some of the chief foreign questions 
of recent years ? 

The Venezuelan boundary dispute, the annexation of 
the Hawaiian Islands, the Cuban and Philippine ques- 
tions, the troubles arising from the Boxer outbreak in 
China, the controversy with Colombia growing out of the 
purchase of the route for the Panama Canal. 

21^. What was the controversy over the Venezuelan 
boundary? 

It was a dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain 
over the boundary line between the former country and 
British Guiana. President Cleveland, following the Mon- 



HISTORY 331 

roe Doctrine, protested against any seizure of Venezuelan 
territory by Great Britain. The dispute was settled by 
arbitration, February 21, 1897. 

216. When arid how were the Hawaiian Islands annexed 
to the United States ? 

In January 1893, the Queen of the Hawaiian Islands 
was deposed by a revolution and a provisional government 
set up. Immediately a treaty of annexation with the 
United States was sought. President Cleveland refused 
to consider this treaty, as he learned, upon investigation, 
that the revolution was furthered by the presence and aid 
of United States marines. During the Spanish-American 
War the Hawaiian Republic again applied for annexation. 
A joint resolution was passed by Congress, July 7, 
1898, annexing these islands to the United States. They 
continued temporarily under their own form of govern- 
ment until 1900, when they were regularly organized as a 
territory. 

21 J. What was the Boxer Rebellion ? 

In 1900, the Boxers, a patriotic society of the Chinese, 
began to massacre native Christians in the northern part 
of China, and to drive out or kill all missionaries and 
foreigners. At Pekin, the foreign ministers and their 
countrymen were besieged in their quarter by the Chinese 
troops and the Boxers. As the Chinese government made 
no attempt to suppress the rebellion, the United States, 
Japan, and the European nations sent troops and warships 
to China to rescue the besieged foreigners and restore 
order. As the Chinese resisted the invading troops, it 
became necessary for them to fight several battles and 
capture some towns before they were able to take Pekin. 

218. What were the causes of the Spanish- American 
War? 



332 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

For the sixth time in fifty years, Cuba rebelled against 
the tyranny and misrule of Spain. This rebellion began 
in 1895, and as it progressed, excited the sympathy and in- 
terest of the people of the United States. The insurgents 
sought in vain, however, to secure recognition of their Re- 
public by the United States, although our government 
warned Spain that the struggle could not go on indefinitely 
without intervention on our part. 

On the night of February 15, 1898, the United States 
battleship Maine was blown up in the harbor at Havana. 

In April, Congress adopted a resolution declaring for 
the freedom of Cuba, demanding the withdrawal of Spain 
from the island, and authorizing the President to enforce 
this by means of our army and navy. Spain severed 
diplomatic relations with the United States at once, and 
war was declared by Congress soon afterward. 

2ig. What tvere the chief events of this war ? 

Dewey's naval victory at Manila Bay, May 1; The 
battles near Santiago, of El Caney and San Juan, July 1; 
the naval battle off Santiago, July 3; the surrender of 
Santiago, July 14; the invasion of Puerto Rico; the cap- 
ture of Manila, August 13. 

220. When was peace declared? 

A protocol was signed, August 12, 1898, by represen- 
tatives of the two nations, providing for an immediate 
cessation of hostilities. 

221. What were the results of the war ? 

Spain withdrew entirely from Cuba. Puerto Rico was 
ceded to the United States, Cuba came under our control, 
but was later allowed to form an independent government. 
The Philippines were purchased by the United States for 
$20,000,000. Guam one of the Ladrones, passed to the 
control of the United States. 



HISTORY 333 

222. What brought the Alaska boundary into dispute? 

The discovery of gold in the Klondike region brought 
many people into that territory. This raised the ques- 
tion as to the exact boundary between Alaska and 
Canada. In order to settle this dispute a commission 
was appointed. October 17, 1903, this body reported, 
virtuall}^ establishing all the claims of the United States. 
By it, jurisdiction over the Lynn Canal, and the cities 
of Dyea, Skaguay, Juneau, and the control of the newly 
discovered mineral wealth in southern Alaska, were given 
to the United States. 

22 J. When was President McKinley assassinated? 

President McKinley was assassinated at Buffalo, Sept 
tember 6, 1901, and died September 14. 

22/1.. Who was his successor and what have been soine of 
the chief events of his ad^ninistratioyi ? 

Theodore Roosevelt, Vice-President, took the oath of 
office as President, on the day of President McKinley's 
death, September 14, 1901. Some of the leading events 
since that time are: 

The passage of the National Irrigation law. 

The withdrawal of United States troops from Cuba 
and the establishment of the Cuban republic. 

End of the Philippine rebellion and passage of the 
Philippine Government Act. 

Settlement of the Alaskan boundary question. 

The great Anthracite Strike. 

The increase of Trusts, the dissolution of the Northern 
Securities Company and proceedings against other great 
combinations. 

The laying of the Pacific Cable. 

The Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis. 

22^. Of what officials is the President's Cabinet composed ? 



334 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary 
of War, Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary 
of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Secretary of Agri- 
culture, Secretary of Commerce and Labor. 

226. What are the most striking features of mechani- 
cal developjnent in this later period of United States His- 
tory ? 

The many and varied uses of electricity. Besides its 
application in the telegraph, telephone, and electric 
light, it has come, through the use of the dynamo and 
electric motor, to be a valuable motive power. 

22y. What is a ''trust V 

Large corporations are characteristic of our times. 
By a combination of capital, a monopoly over a given line 
of business is secured by one corporation. Such a com- 
bination is commonly called a "trust." 

228. What are ''trade unions V 

Combinations of the laboring classes by which skilled 
labor and wages are controlled have been formed among 
nearly all classes of laborers. Such are called "trade 
unions." 

22g. What is the present number of states and terri- 
tories in the Union ? 

Forty-five states, six territories, including Alaska and 
Hawaii, the District of Columbia, the islands of Puerto. 
Rico, Guam, Tutuila, and the Philippines. 

^jo. Who were the presidential candidates in igo/j. f 
What were the party issues of this campaign f 

Theodore Roosevelt of New York and Alton B. Parker 
of the same state. While the trusts and tariff reform 
were issues, the one issue which overshadowed all others 
was the personality of Roosevelt, and it was upon this 
principally that the campaign was fought and won by the 
Republicans. 



CHAPTER XI. 

CIVICS. 

IN A. COUNTRY like ours, where the conduct and 
perpetuity of government are committed to the 
people, intelligence as to the purpose and machinery 
of government is absolutely essential. Many of the 
political evils that have grown up in our midst have been 
possible only because of the ignorance and indifference of 
the mass of the people. The schools have given far too 
little attention to this matter. The study of civics has 
been relegated to the high school and college, hence the 
great majori' y of the pupils have had no instruction in 
this importar t subject. Their ideas have been gained 
incidentally through conversations in the home or on 
the street, through the newspapers, and through cam- 
paign speeches. In all of these cases partisanship rather 
than patriotism has given color to the discussion and the 
child has really obtained no instruction in the theory or 
practice of the government under which he lives. Now 
the public school teacher would be very unwise to teach 
partisanship, but the details of our scheme of govern- 
ment can be taught and it is the duty of the common 
school to teach them. It is of highest importance that 
every child in America should receive instruction in 
civics, and there is no school so remote or so small as to 
preclude such teaching. The questions which follow 
will suggest the material which may be employed for this 
purpose. 

The instruction should begin with the lowest unit, — 
the school district, township, village, or ward, and pro- 
ceed to the county, the state, the United States. It 



336 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

should describe the manner of election, the terms of 
office, and the duties of officers from the constable to the 
president. The caucus and its importance, the conven- 
tion, its manner of organizing and purpose, and other 
details of our political machinery should receive attention. 

From the practical working out of government as 
illustrated in the immediate district or township, the 
pupils should be led to a comprehension of the theory of 
our government, as far as may be. Thus early in life 
the children of our schools may be led to appreciate the 
inestimable birthright of American citizenship. In this 
way we may hope that true patriotism will be fostered in 
times of peace as well as in war, political corruption 
checked and wise government established forever. 

In schools that are large enough many of the ideas of 
government can be practically illustrated by organizing 
the children into caucuses, conventions, courts, etc. ; by 
creating the offices concerning which instruction is given 
and showing the pupils how to perform the duties there- 
of; by holding elections, going through the various steps 
that lead up to them; in a word, by utilizing the prin- 
ciples of our form of government in the government of 
the school. This plan has been successfully carried out 
in many schools, notably in the "George Junior Repub- 
lic." By way of caution, the teacher must not forget 
that the children are immature, and that the responsi- 
bility of school government and authority to administer 
it are vested in him and not in the pupils. 

Questions and Answers. 

/. What is government ? 

Government is the control, direction and regulation of 
public or private affairs. The body of men who for the 
time being are invested by the state with civil authority, 
constitute the government. 



CIVICS 337 

2. What is the object of government ? 

Government is both repressive and progressive. It 
seeks to punish the wrong-doer and to protect the life, 
liberty, and property of the law-abiding citizen. But in 
addition its aim is to promote the general welfare, and 
foster the arts and sciences, to encourage education, 
and to advance the nation in all the interests of civiliza- 
tion. 

J. What is a state? 

A state or nation is a body politic, or society of men, 
united together for the purpose of promoting their 
mutual safety and advantage by the joint efforts of their 
combined strength. A body politic with no political 
superior, is a state or nation. 

/J.. Define law; constitutio7i. 

Law is a rule of being or conduct, established by an 
authority able to enforce its will. 

A constitution is the fundamental principles of govern- 
ment of an organized body of people, embodied in writ- 
ten documents or implied in the institutions and usages 
of the country or society. 

5. Name and define the principal forms of government. 

A monarchy is a government in which the sovereignty 
is vested in one person. An absolute monarchy is one 
in which the acts of the ruler are unlimited. A limited 
monarchy is one in which the power of the ruler is limited 
by a constitution. 

A democracy is a government in which all the people 
share equally in the sovereignty. 

A republic is a state in which the government is dele- 
gated to representatives chosen by its citizens. 

6. Outline the ge^teral plan of the government of the 
United States. 



338 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The United States has a republican form of govern- 
ment. The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. 
It is operative throughout the whole domain and is bind- 
ing on all the people. But the country is sub-divided into 
states, each of which has its constitution, which is the 
organic law of that state and must be enforced. The 
states in turn are divided into counties for the better 
protection of the people and the more equitable and con- 
venient enforcement of the laws of the state. Within 
the county are municipalities and other districts which 
enact and enforce local measures. 

7. When and how did the United States of Arnerica 
become a nation f 

The United States of America became an independent 
nation upon the adoption of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, July 4, 1776. 

8. What were the Articles of Confederation ? 

Soon after the Declaration of Independence a plan of 
national government, known as the Articles of Confeder- 
ation, was agreed upon and finally ratified by all the 
states. Under this plan the union was a confederacy, 
whose purposes were mutual protection, the security of 
liberty, and general welfare. It provided that each state 
retain its sovereignty and every power not expressly de- 
legated to the United States. 

p. Why was this form of government abandoned ? 

The many defects and weaknesses in the Articles of 
Confederation led to their abandonment. 

All functions of government were vested in Congress, 
which, while it possessed powers to make laws, had not 
the executive power to enforce them. It could declare 
war, conclude peace, appropriate money, but it could not 
compel the states to comply with its provisions, and 



CIVICS 339 

it had no power to levy or collect taxes neither had 
it any control over commerce or public lands. Besides 
this the government had no executive head and no 
judiciary. 

10. When was the present Constitution formed and 
adopted ? 

The present Constitution was prepared by a convention 
of the States during the summer of 1787. It was adopted 
by this convention Sept. 17, 1787, was ratified by the 
States soon after and went into effect in 1789. 

11. What are the purposes of the Constitution ? 

(1) To form a more perfect union. 

(2) To establish justice. 

(3) To insure domestic tranquility. 

(4) To provide for the common defense. 

(5) To promote the general welfare. 

(6) To secure the blessings of liberty to the people. 

12. What are the three departments of our governw,e7it? 

(1) The Legislative, or law-making department. 

(2) The Executive, or law-enforcing department. 

(3) The Judicial, or law-interpreting department. 

/J. In what is the law snaking power vested? 

In Congress, which consists of the Senate and the 
House of Representatives. 

i^. How is the num,ber of representatives determined? 
How are they chosen ? 

After each census (which is taken every ten years), 
Congress provides by law for the number of representa- 
tives, and these are apportioned among the States 
according to their population. 

Representatives are chosen every two years by a direct 
vote of the people. 



340 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

75. What are the qualifications of a representative ? 

A representative must be twenty-five years old, must 
have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and 
must be a resident of the State from which he is chosen. 
It is also supposed that he reside in the district which 
he represents. 

16. Are territories allowed representatives ? 

Each organized Territory is allowed to send one dele- 
gate to Congress. He may take part in discussions but 
cannot vote. 

ij. Name the officers of the House ? How chosen ? 

The speaker is the presiding officer of the House. 
Other officers are a clerk, sergeant-at-arms, door-keeper, 
postmaster, chaplain, and librarian. These officers are 
chosen by the House. 

18. What power is delegated solely to the House ? 

The House of Representatives has the sole power of 
impeachment, while the Senate has sole power to try the 
impeached party. 

/p. What is the number of senators ? Their term of 
office f How chosen ? 

Two senators are elected by the legislature of each 
state for a term of six years. 

Such election occurs on the second Tuesday after the 
organization of the legislature chosen just before the 
senatorial term expires. 

In each house of the legislature, a viva voce vote is 
taken. On the following day at noon, both houses meet 
in joint session. If the choice of both houses the preced- 
ing day has been the same person, that person is declared 
elected. If not, a viva voce vote of the joint session is 
taken, a majority of all present being necessary for an 
election. If such a majority is not secured the two 



CIVICS 341 

houses meet from day to day and ballot until a senator is 
elected or the legislature adjourns. 

20. How is a vacancy in the senate filled ? 

If a vacancy occurs, it is filled by the legislature in 
the same manner as a senator is regularly elected, unless 
the legislature is not in session. In that case the 
vacancy is filled by a temporary appointment made by the 
governor of the state. 

21. What are the qualifications of a senator ? 

A senator must be thirty years old, must have been 
nine years a citizen of the United States, and must be an 
inhabitant of the state from which elected. 

22. Who is the presiding officer of the senate? Name 
other officers. 

The Vice-President of the United States is president 
of the senate. The other officers are the same as those 
of the house, and are elected by the senate. 

2^. What is the salary of senators and representatives? 

Each senator and representative receives a compensa- 
tion of five thousand dollars per year, and a mileage fee 
of twenty cents per mile in going to and returning from 
each regular session. In addition to his salary each 
member is allowed a sum for stationery, clerk hire, etc. 
The Speaker of the House receives eight thousand 
dollars. 

2/j.. What are the official rights of Congressmen ? 

They are exempt from arrest during sessions of Con- 
gress or while going to or returning from the same, 
except for treason, felony, or breach of peace. Freedom 
of debate is also accorded. 

2^. Can a Congressman hold any other civil office ? 

No senator or representative, during his term of 



342 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

office, can be appointed to any civil office under the 
authority of the United States and no person holding 
such an office can be a member of either house. 

26. When and how often must Congress meet ? 

Congress shall assemble at least once every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December. 
If necessary, Congress can be assembled by the President 
for an extra session. 

By. What bills must originate in the house ? 
All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives." 

28. How is a bill legislated? 

A bill is introduced by being presented to the Clerk, 
indorsed with its title and the name of its author. It is 
given a number by the Clerk, and when the proper time 
comes, is read the first time. It is handed to the Speak- 
er, who puts the question as to its second reading. 
When read again, it is referred to the committee which 
has charge of its subject. Here it is examined, and with 
or without amendments, returned to the house. It is 
then considered by a "Committee of the Whole" where 
it is debated and often amended. It is read for a third 
time and^put to vote. If passed, it is signed by the 
Speaker, attested by the Clerk, and the date of its pas- 
sage recorded. It is sent to the senate where a very 
similar course is pursued. 

2g. How may a bill become a law ? 

After a bill has passed both houses of Congress it is 
sent to the President for his signature. If he approves it, 
he signs it and the bill becomes a law. If he fails to 
return it within ten days, it becomes a law the same as if 
it had been signed. 

If the President does not approve the bill he returns it 



CIVICS 343 

to the house where it originated with his objections. If it 
is passed by a two-thirds vote of both houses it becomes 
a law without the President's signature. It is then said 
to have been passed over his "veto." 

JO. What are the expressed powers of Congress ? 

The powers of Congress are given in Section VIII of 
the Constitution as follows: 

Clause 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and 
collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts 
and provide for the common defence and general welfare 
of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises 
shall be uniform throughout the United States. 

Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the 
United States. 

Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, 
and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

Clause 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturaliza- 
tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, 
throughout the United States. 

Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, 
and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and 
measures. 

Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counter- 
feiting the securities and current coin of the United 
States. 

Clause 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads. 

Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and use- 
ful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and 
inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings 
and discoveries. 

'" Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the 
Supreme Court. 

Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies 



344 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law 
of nations. 

Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque 
and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land 
and water. 

Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appro- 
priation of money to that use shall be for a longer term 
than two years. 

Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy. 

Clause 14. To make rules for the government and 
regulation of the land and naval forces. 

Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to 
execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, 
and repel invasions. 

Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and 
disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of 
them as may be employed in the service of the United 
States, reserving to the States respectively the appoint- 
ment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
militia according to the discipline prescribed by Con- 
gress. 

Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases 
whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles 
square) as may, by cession of particular states and accep- 
tance of Congress, become the seat of the government of 
the United States, and to exercise like authority over all 
places purchased by the consent of the legislature in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- 
zines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings. 

Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary 
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and 
all other powers vested by this Constitution, in the gov- 
ernment of the United States, or in any department or 
officer thereof. 

J I. What are some of the implied powers of Co7tgress? 



CIVICS 345 

(1) To purchase foreign territory. 

(2) To establish military and naval academies, etc. 

(3) To make internal improvements. 

(4) To create corporations. 

^2. hi what powers is Congress prohibited or restricted ? 

Congress shall not — 

(1) Suspend the writ of habeas corpus. 

(2) Pass a bill of attainder or ex post facto law. 

(3) Lay direct taxes except in proportion to census. 

(4) Tax state exports. 

(5) Give preference to the ports of one state over 
another. 

(6) Compel vessels to enter, clear, or pay duties in any 
other port than the one bound for. 

(7) Draw money from the treasury without lawful 
appropriation being made. 

(8) Grant titles of nobility. 

(9) Establish religion or prohibit its exercise. 

(10) Abridge freedom of speech or of the press. 

(11) Deny the right to assemble and petition. 

(12) Repudiate debts. 

jj. What prohibitions does tJie CojistitiUion place upon 
tJie states ? 

The Constitution provides that the state shall have 
authority in local and municipal affairs. But all powers 
delegated to Congress shall not be exercised by the State, 
and all prohibitions placed upon Congress shall be bind- 
ing upon the State. 

j^. Define reveime ; direct tax ; indirect tax. 

Revenue is money raised by a government for its own 
support. 

A direct tax is a tax which comes directly from the 
taxed ; as a poll or property tax. 

An indirect tax is a tax assessed upon one person but 



346 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

paid by another; as the duties on imports, tax on cigars, 
etc. 

J5. How does the government borrow money ? 
By issuing bonds, which it promises to pay at a given 
time, with interest. 

j6. What conditions usually determine the right to vote? 

In most states the right to vote is accorded to all male 
citizens over twenty-one years of age. A few states 
extend the right of franchise to women also. 

J/. How may an alien become a citizen of the United 
States? 

A foreigner becomes naturalized by appearing in court 
and declaring his intention of becoming a citizen of 
the United States. After two years he must appear in 
open court, renounce upon oath all foreign allegiance and 
swear fealty to the Constitution. Naturalization is 
restricted to the white and black races. An alien must 
reside in this country five years before he can become 
naturalized. 

J 8. What is a copyright ? A patent ? 

A copyright is the right of an author to publish his 
literary or artistic works exclusively of all other persons. 
In the United States a copyright runs for twenty-eight 
years, with privilege of renewal for fourteen years. A 
patent secures to an inventor exclusive rights to his dis- 
coveries. Patents are issued for seventeen years. 

jp. What is a ''^zvr it of habeas corpus?'' ^^An ex post 
facto'' law ? A ' 'bill of attainder ?" 

A "writ of habeas corpus" is an order from a judge hav- 
ing the rightful authority, commanding an officer to 
bring a person held in confinement before the judge that 
he may inquire into the case. Its object is to prevent 
illegal imprisonment or detention. 



CIVICS 347 

An ex post facto law is one which makes an act crimin- 
al which was not criminal when committed. 

A bill of attaifider is a legislative act inflicting punish- 
ment without trial by jury. 

^o. Who is the executive officer of the United States ? 
How long does he serve ? What other officer is chosen for 
the same term ? 

The President of the United States is the chief execu- 
tive officer. He and the Vice-President are chosen for 
a term of four years. 

/j.!. What are the qualifications for President ? 

No person is eligible to the office of President except 
he be a natural born citizen of the United States, four- 
teen years a resident of the United States, and thirty- 
five years old. 

^2. How are the President and Vice-President elected? 

On the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, 
the people of the several States elect as many presiden- 
tial electors as the State has senators and representatives. 

On the second Monday in January these electors meet 
at the State capitol and cast their votes for the candi- 
dates of their party for President and Vice-President. 
Certified lists of their votes are sent to the president of 
the Senate. On the second Wednesday in February, the 
Senate and House of Representatives meet in joint ses- 
sion. The certificates from the States are counted and 
the persons receiving the majority of votes are declared 
elected. 

If no person is elected President, the House elects 
from the three candidates receiving the highest number 
of votes. If no Vice-President is elected, the Senate 
elects from the two candidates receiving the most elec- 
toral votes. 



348 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

/fj. What is the Presidential Succession law? 

In 1886 an act of Congress fixed the succession to the 
presidency in case of death or removal of the President, as 
follows: Vice-President, Secretary of State, Secretary of 
the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney-General, Post- 
master General, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the 
Interior. In 1905, the Secretary of Agriculture and Sec- 
retary of Commerce and Labor were added in their order. 

^4-. What are some of the powers of the President ? 

(1) The President is Commander-in-Chief of the Army 
and Navy, and of the militia when in national service. 

(2) He has power to veto acts of Congress. 

(3) By and with the advice and consent of the Senate 
he may appoint many government officials. 

(4) He may fill vacancies occurring during recess of 
the Senate. 

(5) He may grant reprieves and pardons except in 
cases of impeachment. 

(6) He may, with the concurrence of the Senate, make 
treaties. 

(7) He may convene either or both houses of Congress 
if occasion so demands. 

(8) He shall from time to time give Congress infor- 
mation as to the state of the Union, recommend to their 
consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary 
and expedient: he shall receive ambassadors and public 
ministers; he shall take care that the laws are faithfully 
executed, and shall commission all officers of the United 
States. 

^5. How can the President be removed from office ? 

The President, Vice-President, and all other civil 
officers shall be removed from office on impeachment for, 
and conviction of, treason, bribery, and other high crimes 
and misdemeanors. 



CIVICS 349 

/f.6. In what is the Judicial power vested? 

**The judicial power of the United States is vested in 
one Supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts, as Con- 
gress may from time to time ordain and establish." 

4.J. Of how many Justices does the Supreme Court con- 
sist ? 

The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and 
eight Associate Justices. These justices hold their 
offices for life unless impeached; but they have the 
privilege of retiring upon full pay, at the age of seventy, 
provided they have served in the court for ten years. 

/j-S. In what case have the United States Courts Juris- 
diction ? 

"The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law 
and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of 
the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under their authority; — to all cases affecting 
ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; — to all 
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; — to contro- 
versies to which the United States shall be a party ; — to 
controversies between two or more States; — between a 
State and citizen of another State; — between citizens of 
different States; — between citizens of the same State 
claiming lands under grants of different States, and 
between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign 
states, citizens, or subjects. " 

4.g. In what cases has the Supreme Court original Juris- 
diction f 

^ *'In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public minis- 
ters, and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a 
party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdic- 
tion." 



350 SEELE V'S Q UESTION BOOK 

50. What other courts have beeji established by Congress? 

The circuit courts of appeals, the circuit courts, the 
district courts, the court of claims, the supreme court 
of the District of Columbia, a territorial court for each 
of the territories, and several commissioners' courts in 
each of the states. 

5/. What is meant by original and appellate jurisdic- 
tion ? 

A court has original jurisdiction when the case is of 
such a nature that the court may try it for the first time. 
A court has appellate jurisdiction when a case which 
has been decided by a lower court is appealed to this 
court for further trial. 

52. What crimes must be tried by jury ? 

All crimes, except impeachment, shall be tried by jury. 

^^. Of what does a jury consist ? How many are neces- 
sary to convict ? 

A jury consists of twelve men, impartially selected, 
who must concur in the guilt of the accused before he 
can be convicted. 

5^. What is a grand jury ? A petit jury ? 

A grand jury is a body of men (not less than twelve 
nor more than twenty-three) selected from the citizens 
of a given district. It considers those cases submitted 
to it by an officer of the court, and in secret session takes 
testimony and decides whether the evidence is sufficient 
to warrant accusation. 

A /^/// jury consists of twelve persons impaneled to 
try cases at the bar of a court. 

55. In what does treason against United States consist ? 
In levying war against the country, or in adhering to 
its enemies, or giving them aid and comfort. 



CIVICS 351 

^6. How may treason be punished ? 

Treason may be punished in whatever way Congress 
may declare, but such punishment shall not extend to 
any but the person convicted. 

57. What is the relation of the states to the national 
government ? 

(a) They owe their allegiance to it. 

(b) Their laws cannot conflict with the Constitution 
or national laws. 

(c) If they do not remain as states in the Union they 
become territories under it. 

^8. What rights have the states ? 

(1) The right to full faith and credit to public acts, 
records, and judicial proceedings. 

(2) The citizens have all the privileges and immunities 
of citizens in the several states. 

5p. Who are citizens of the United States ? 

**A11 persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of 
the United States and of the state wherein they reside." 

60. What is meant by extradition ? 

When a person charged with crime flees to another 
state, the governor of the state in which the crime was 
committed may demand from the executive of the state 
to which the criminal has fled the arrest and return of 
the offender. 

61. What must the United States guarantee the states ? 
"The United States shall guarantee to every state in 

this Union a republican form of government, and shall 
protect each of them from invasion ; and, on application 
of the legislature, or of the Executive (when the legisla- 
ture cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 



352 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

62. How are new states admitted to the Union ? 

When a territory has a population sufficient to entitle 
it to a representative in Congress it may be admitted to 
the Union. This admission may be in one of two ways. 
Either Congress passes an "enabling act" authorizing 
the people to adopt a constitution which must meet cer- 
tain requirements; or, the people submit a constitution 
to Congress, and upon its approval the Territory becomes 
a state. 

6j. Can the United States acquire territory f 
While the Constitution is silent upon the power to 
acquire new territory, yet in the power to declare war 
and make treaties such power is implied. And on the 
theory that the nation possesses all the rights of sov- 
ereignty, the right to acquire territory has been conceded. 

64.. What is the relation of a territory to the Union? 
How is it governed ? 

A territory is under the control of the Union but is 
not in the Union. 

Its government is in the hands of Congress, and its 
citizens, while they have civil rights and are entitled to 
protection, have no power to govern the territory save 
as it is given them by the general government. 

6^. How may the Constitution he a7nended? 

Congress, by a two-thirds vote may propose amend- 
ments, or upon request of two-thirds of the states a con- 
vention may be called to propose amendments. Such 
amendments become a part of the Constitution when 
ratified by three-fourths of the states. 

66. How many and what a7nend7nents have been made 
to the Constitution ? 

There have been fifteen amendments made to the 
Constitution. 



CIVICS 353 

The first ten are of the nature of a bill of rights and 
were meant to supply omissions from the original Con- 
stitution. 

The eleventh amendment related to the judiciary, and 
the twelfth to the manner of election of President and 
Vice-President. The thirteenth abolished slavery, the 
fourteenth guaranteed civil rights to the negro, and the 
fifteenth gave him the right of franchise. 

Sy. What is the general form of state governments ? 

The state governments are modeled after the national 
government. They control their own local and state 
interests and exercise such prerogatives as do not con- 
flict with those of the general government or as are not 
granted to it. 

68. How are the various functions of state governments 
carried on ? 

The chief executive of a state is the governor. Other 
officers, with various titles are also chosen to assist in the 
administration of affairs. The state legislatures make 
the state laws. And state courts see to the interpreta- 
tion of these laws. 

6g. What are the sub-divisions of the states for adminis- 
trative or other purposes ? 

The states are divided into smaller divisions called by 
various names, such as counties, boroughs, parishes, etc. 
These in turn contain other divisions called townships 
or towns. And within these counties, etc., are found 
corporate divisions known as cities, towns, and villages. 

yo. Who is the cJiief executive officer of the county ? Of 
the city ? 

The sheriff is the chief executive officer of the county, 
and the mayor of the city or town. 



354 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

ji. What is the duty of the County Clerk? Of the Pros- 
ecuting^ or District Attorney? 

The Clerk has charge of all public records of the 
county. The Attorney prosecutes all persons indicted 
for crime. 

yz. What is the law-making body of a city ? 

The city council or board of aldermen passes ordi- 
nances for the local government of the city. 

The control of schools, the care of the poor, the protec- 
tion against fire, the police protection, the trial of minor 
crimes, the levying of taxes, and the improvement and 
care of streets, parks, etc.* 

*NOTE.— As the state and local governments differ so greatly it is impossible 
to present a discussion of them here. The teacher is recommended to study the 
government of his own state and locality and to make his pupils familiar with 
the conditions about them. 



CHAPTER XII. 

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

THE first thought that occupies the mind of the 
young teacher in entering a new position is doubt- 
less not so much what he will teach, what method 
employ, as what will be his success in managing the 
school. The question of discipline, of beginning rightly 
at the outset, of interesting the pupils and gaining their 
love, of the arrangement of the program, of doing the 
very best thing for the school will be uppermost in the 
mind of the earnest and conscientious teacher. He 
naturally turns to such helps as may be within reach and 
seeks to fortify himself against possible mistakes, and 
prepare for contingencies that may arise. Such a course 
would certainly be quite proper and sensible. No man 
should enter upon any undertaking without counting the 
cost and making every possible preparation. While 
experience is a good school master, — and personal expe- 
rience alone will suffice in many phases of the work of 
teaching — the experience of others should be drawn 
upon as far as may be. The teacher of today should 
avail himself of the accumulated wisdom of the past, else 
there would be no progress. "The professionally edu- 
cated," says Rosenkranz, "masters thoroughly what the 
experience of the race has transmitted to his own spe- 
cialty, and hence increases his own stature by standing on 
the shoulders of the human race." Employ what the 
world has already learned as a starting point and then go 
on to perfection. 



356 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

A long experience in various schools, — the country 
district school with its many classes, its want of any 
form of grading, its responsibilities with no one to guide 
or advise, and its large number of pupils far surpassing 
the number now found in these schools; the graded 
school as principal, and the city system as superintend- 
ent, and finally the normal school as teacher of teachers, 
— leads me to think that I may be able to help others. 
Hence the character of the questions on this subject 
which follow. Certainly many of the mistakes of earlier 
years might have been spared me if some practical hints 
of the character here offered had been presented. 

The purpose of this chapter, then, is to put the young 
teacher in the way of finding out many things through 
the experience of others, and thereb)^ save him from the 
mortification and danger, as far as may be, of learning 
them through his own mistakes. It must be again sug- 
gested that no teacher or book can wholly overcome the 
necessity of learning through personal experience. The 
man who takes charge of a ship may know the science of 
navigation and yet fail in sailing his vessel. He will 
find that he is awkward and needs practice. Just so the 
young teacher will find it difficult to put into practice 
many of the theories he has learned in the normal school 
at the teachers' institute, or from books. Not that the 
theories are necessarily wrong, the difficulty is with the 
teacher who has not yet learned to adjust himself to new 
conditions and untried circumstances. The way one 
person does a thing may not be the best way for another. 
But both the sailor and the teacher will make fewer mis- 
takes, and sooner adjust themselves to the new life if 
they have been previously grounded in the theory and 
philosophy of their calling. There is another party to 
the transaction, the helpless one, the child, who must not 
be left out of the account. Whatever experience the 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 357 

teacher gains through mistakes is largely at the expense 
of the child. This is the strongest possible plea for the 
study of school management in order to reduce these 
mistakes to a minimum. 

It is folly to attempt to present all the devices needed 
by teachers for the conduct of a school, but there are 
certain principles in school management that hold every- 
where with everyone. Therefore the purpose here is to 
present principles rather than devices. With such prin- 
ciples as a guide, each teacher should be able to work out 
his own salvation, making his own devices according to 
his own individuality. For individuality is important 
in the management of a school as truly as in method. 

The scope of school management is quite distinct from 
that of methods, or general pedagogy, though many 
text-books on this subject treat of the whole field of edu- 
cational practice and philosophy. Let us outline the 
field embraced in school management. 

(1) It treats of the teacher, his character, motives for 
entering the work, necessary characteristics, and the 
responsibilities of his office. 

(2) It discusses the organization of the school, showing 
how order is to be gained, and the pupils set at work 
from the start. 

(3) It gives certain principles for the arrangement of 
the daily program so as to secure the best results. 

(4) It shows how the school should be graded or classi- 
fied. 

(5) It states certain principles concerning the control 
of the school and the employment of punishment. 

(6) It treats of school evils and school virtues, seeking 
to check the one and establish the other. 

(7) It studies incentives and seeks to secure wholesome 
ones. 



358 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

(8) It considers promotion and the means employed in 
deciding it, such as examinations, tests, reviews, etc. 

(9) It shows how the recitation should be conducted, 
and the ends to be sought. 

(10) It discusses the teacher's duty to his school, to 
the community, to his fellow-teachers, to himself. 

(11) It considers the attitude of superintendent, princi- 
pal, and teacher towards each other mutually. 

(12) It informs the teacher upon material matters con- 
nected with the school, such as ventilation, light, heat, 
seating and other things which have to do with the com- 
fort and health of the pupils. 

The questions which follow seek to illustrate these 
points and others, and to assist the teacher in meeting 
these problems. They will deal with the actual working 
of the school and the teacher's life in the community. 
The treatment here must necessarily be brief. For this 
reason and because of the importance of the subject, I 
would urge the young teacher, in addition to the materi- 
al here offered, to seek further assistance from some 
standard work on school management. 

Questions and Answers.* 

1. What are the purposes of education ? 

The purposes of education are so to train the child that 
he may reach the highest stage of usefulness and happi- 
ness, and contribute the greatest possible service to man- 
kind. 

2. Why is education especially needful in a republic ? 

If our republic is to continue the standard of intelligence 
and morality must be raised through universal education. 

*In preparing these questions I have followed the plan of Dr. Seeley's "New 
School Management," published by Hinds, Noble & i^lredge. New York. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 359 

A free government can survive only when its citizens, 
upon whom its stability rests, are intelligent and pure. 

J. Why is the prof ession of teacher important ? 

It is the province of the school so to educate the child 
that he may live a complete life. The vital factor of the 
school is the teacher. Hence in order that the school 
may accomplish its great work it becomes necessary that 
the teacher be a person of lofty attainments and strong 
character. Any profession which demands of its mem- 
bers such qualifications is an important one. 

^. What are some of the qualities that a teacher should 
possess ? 

A teacher should be genuine, whole-souled, honest, 
manly, true. Positive moral character and life are vital 
elements in governing power. The pernicious influ- 
ence of a teacher wanting in genuine moral uprightness, 
who comes into daily contact with young lives cannot be 
estimated. 

Whatever else he may lack, the teacher with a fine 
moral sense will never fail to lift his pupils towards 
higher ideals of life. 

5. What kind of training does a teacher need ? 

A teacher should have both academic and professional 
training. 

6. How much academic training is necessary ? 

A teacher should have a sound foundation of general 
knowledge. He ought at least to possess such training 
as is afforded by a full high school course or its equiva- 
lent. ^ While he may not be called upon to teach some of 
the studies of such a course, yet they furnish a reserve 
force, supply a fund to draw upon, give breadth of out- 
look and open up a comprehensive view of the whole 
matter of the education of the child. Thorough mastery" 



36o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

of the academic knowledge of subjects is absolutely 
essential, and nothing can take its place. It is a con- 
ceded fact that more teachers fail from ignorance of the 
subject matter than from any other cause. The teacher 
should ever remember that "The power of teaching a 
little depends upon the power of knowing a great deal." 

7. Of zvhat should the professional training of the 
teacher consist ? 

The professional training of the teacher should consist 
of the study of psychology and child study, history of 
education, methods of teaching, school management, 
school law and school economics, practice work and 
philosophy of education. 

8. What are some of the responsibilities which fall upon 
the teacher ? 

(1) The responsibility of right personal example. 

(2) Responsibility for the physical well-being of his 
pupils. 

(3) Responsibility for the moral training of his pupils. 

(4) Responsibility for the intellectual growth of his 
pupils. 

(5) General responsibility to the community, to the 
school authorities, to his profession, and to himself. 

g. What are some of the rewards of the teacher ? 

Besides the tangible reward of salary, the true teacher 
finds return for his work in the improvement of his 
pupils, in their success in after life and in the conscious- 
ness of having done his duty and having been, in some 
degree at least, a blessing and help to those about him. 

10. What are some of the first steps in the organization 
of a school? 

The wise teacher will visit his schoolroom before the 
opening day of school, and do all he possibly can to put 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 361 

the place in order for work. He will try to gain some 
knowledge of the number of pupils he is to have, of the 
studies pursued, text-books used, etc. He will make a 
temporary program and plan enough work to keep every 
body very busy for the entire first day. Upon the 
assembling of the school, he will conduct simple, brief 
opening exercises, then take the names of the pupils and 
ascertain as nearly as possible to what classes they 
belong. Having done this he will give everybody some- 
thing to do. Such definite, vigorous action will com- 
mand the respect of pupils, secure order, and give the 
teacher an opportunity to study his pupils and to learn 
something of their habits of behavior and study. 

11. What is the value of a regular program or schedule 
of work ? 

The teacher who is qualified for his work and who is 
kind, firm, self-controlled and just, will have no trouble 
in organizing and conducting a successful school. 

A regular program gives to each subject and each class 
an equitable share of time and attention. It teaches les- 
sons and habits of regularity. It teaches definiteness of 
work and concentration of thought, by requiring the study 
of a given subject at a given time, and the exclusion, for 
the time being, of other subjects. It prevents loss of 
time and leaves no time for idleness. 

12. What are some of the points to be considered in ar- 
ranging a program ? 

(1) Study and recitation periods for younger pupils 
should be shorter and more frequent than those allotted 
to advanced classes. 

(2) Place the hardest subjects first in the morning, and 
alternate the hard and easy subjects — or rather those 
subjects which require different kinds of mental effort. 

(3) Have frequent recesses or periods of relaxation. 



362 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

(4) Give an equitable amount of time to each subject. 

(5) So adjust the work that each class shall have a fair 
amount of the teacher's time and attention. 

(6) With older pupils it will be better to have fewer 
recitations per week upon a given subject, but longer 
periods. This can be done by alternating subjects. 

/J. What are some advantages of the rural schools 
which contain many grades in one room ? 

The pupils learn to be self-reliant and to do individual 
work. They are trained to assume and carry responsi- 
bility. They live close to nature and learn many useful 
and helpful things from the world about them. They 
have fewer distractions outside of school and as a rule 
are more earnest in their work than city pupils. 

i^. What are some advantages of a graded city school ? 

(1) It has better organization and can afford better 
teachers. 

(2) Its pupils remain longer in school. 

(3) Contact with others, because of larger classes, 
arouses greater ambitions. 

(4) It secures more regular attendance, and furnishes 
better material means. 

(5) It affords a fuller course of study and opportunities 
for more thorough and comprehensive work. 

75. What is the greatest problem of most young teachers ? 

Probably no duty in connection with his work causes 
so much anxiety to the young teacher as that of main- 
taining order. 

16. Name two ends to be sought in school discipline ? 

(1) The protection of the rights of the individual child. 

(2) The maintenance of the good name of the school. 

77. What is the first requisite of good order ? 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 363 

The most essential requisite of good order is implicit 
obedience. 

18. What is the aim of discipline ? 

The great purpose of the school is to form right habits 
in the pupils. If the school fails to establish the chil- 
dren in habits of right acting and right thinking, it fails 
in its most important dut)^ and its so-called discipline 
counts for naught. 

ig. Are rules valuable in discipline? If so how should 
they be used? 

Certain regulations are necessary wherever a number 
of people are brought together. In a school, punctual 
and regular attendance, promptness, respectful behavior, 
and consideration for the rights of others are implied 
regulations. Some other formal rules may be necessary, 
and should be given when occasion demands. 

The following plan for making a rule is a good one : 
first, point out the evil that exists; second, give warning 
that punishment will follow if the evil is not corrected ; 
third, repeat the warning and make the rule; fourth, 
enforce the rule firmly, justly, and impartially; fifth, 
repeal the rule when it is no longer necessary. 

20. What is meant by ^'putting pupils on their honor?'' 

Pupils need to be taught to distinguish between right 
and wrong and to do right because it is right. To 
strengthen them in this self-government, they should be 
shown a certain course of action and then allowed to 
make their own choice in following this course. In such 
an instance the right of the case should be presented and 
the pupil shown which choice will be in keeping with his 
sense of honor, then he should be trusted to act honorably. 

21. How may this be done ? 

Explain to pupils the meaning of an appeal to honor. 



364 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

Be genuine in trusting them. Do not tell them you 
leave them on their honor, and then appoint a monitor 
or secret spy to watch them. Do not attempt too much 
at once or put too great a strain upon their moral sense. 
Call all offenders to strict account. Avoid suspicion, 
and treat pupils as if you expected only honorable action. 

22. What IS punisJunent ? 

Punishment is penalty imposed by some one in author- 
ity for a wrong done. 

2 J. What is the object of ptmishment in school? 
The school punishes to correct and reform the individ- 
ual. 

2/j.. What are some of the principles governing punisJi- 
ment ? 

(1) The least punishment that will accomplish the end 
is always the right punishment. 

(2) The punishment should be the sequence ot the 
offence. 

(3) Punishment should aim to reach the individual 
rather than to serve as an example for others. 

2f. Name some kiyids of punishment. 

Reproof, isolation, withdrawal of privileges, with- 
drawal of confidence, reporting to parents, corporal pun- 
ishment, suspension and expulsion. 

26. What are some of the most common school evils ? 

Carelessness, laziness, tardiness, irregularity in attend- 
ance, tale-bearing, whispering, lying, cheating, stealing, 
impudence and rebellion. 

2J. How may these evils be overcome ? 

These evils furnish the problems which tax the inge- 
nuity and try the patience of every teacher. They must 
be met and dealt with, kindly, firmly, persistently, 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 365 

vigilantly, constantly. They are best overcome, not by 
repression and regulation, but by so cultivating the 
virtues and the good things that there is no chance for 
the evil to develop. 

The extent to which the evils are overcome is, in a 
great degree, the measure of the teacher's success and 
the best criterion by which to gauge the real advance- 
ment of his pupils. 

28. What are the principal school virtues ? 

Regularity, punctuality, neatness, order, accuracy, 
industry, obedience, truthfulness, fidelity to duty, loy- 
alty, honesty and politeness are the chief school virtues. 

2g. What are some of the forms of politeness which 
should be cultivated in the school ? 

Pupils should be taught how to give and receive an 
introduction; to acknowledge courtesies; to know when 
to excuse themselves; to give assistance to others; to 
give place to others; to respect older persons and those 
in authority. 

Both the spirit Sin& form of politeness should be culti- 
vated — the spirit, which is the essence of true politeness, 
being unselfishness ; and the form, which embodies the 
conventionalities of society and life. Such training will 
materially aid the child in his intercourse with the world 
and in winning success, 

JO. What place should be given to the teaching' of morals 
in school ? 

The public school, in its teaching and influence should 
ever stand for the highest morality. All teaching is 
wo^ se than useless if not based on ethical foundations, 
and if it has not for its highest aim the building of 
character. Therefore every teacher should have in mind 
a systematic and wholesome plan for teaching morals. 



366 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

J I. What means of moral training m,ay be used ? 

(1) Systematic required instruction 

(2) Personal influence of the teacher, with incidental 
teaching. 

(3) School discipline in general. 

(4) Public sentiment in and out of school. 

^2. What are some of the cautions which should be heed- 
ed^ especially by yotmg teachers ? 

(1) Do not use sarcasm. 

(2) Avoid threatening and scolding. 

(3) Always keep your word with the pupil. 

(4) Do not be hasty in condemning the child. 

(5) Use judgment in giving and withholding assist- 
ance. 

(6) Have patience with dull children. 

(7) Learn to discriminate between harmless fun or 
childish mischief, and real wrong-doing. Learn to over- 
look some things. 

(8) Remember always that you are dealing with im- 
mortal beings and that the effect of your work is not 
only for time but for eternity. 

jj. What is an incentive ? Define kinds. 

The desires that incite or impel to action or effort are 
called incentives or motives. 

When a pupil studies because he desires knowledge, 
then he is working from a natural incentive. When he 
studies to make a grade, to gain a reward, etc., the 
incentive is an artificial one. 

j^. Name some artificial incentives. Should they be 
used ? 

Prizes, privileges, immunities, and grades or marks 
are included in school incentives. 

Most teachers are capable of controlling their pupils on 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 367 

a higher plane than that which requires artificial incen- 
tives. If such incentives are used at all they should be 
employed only as temporary expedients to attain a 
certain end, and never as permanent factors. 

J5. What are the most important natural incentives ? 

Dr. White in his School Management gives the follow- 
ing: 

(1) Desire for good standing. 

(2) Desire for approbation. 

(3) Desire for knowledge. 

(4) Desire for efficiency. 

(5) Desire for self-control. 

(6) Desire for future good. 

(7) Sense of honor. 

(8) Sense of right. 

(9) Sense of duty. 

^6. What is the object of promotion ? 
The object of promotion is to place a child where he 
can do his best work. 

J/. What should be the basis of promotion ? 

The fitness and needs of the child should be the basis 
of promotion. 

J 8. Should there be stated times for promotion ? 

In order to further steady, systematic work and keep 
the mere act of promotion subordinate, it is best to have 
a definite time for the promotion of the class as a whole. 
A goal is thus set towards which both pupils and teachers 
may aim. Each promotion marks an event in the child's 
life and stimulates him to renewed, effort in his new 
environment. 

jp. How often should promotions occur ? 
There should be two stated promotions each year. By 
this means bright pupils will not be held back with the 



368 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

duller ones and the slower pupils will not drop so far 
behind in their work as to become discouraged. 

^o. How may a pupiVs fitness for promotion be deter- 
mined? 

Examinations, tests, marking of daily lessons and the 
judgment of the teacher are variously employed in 
determining the pupil's fitness for promotion. 

^i. What is the educatioiial value of an exainination ? 

(1) It tests the ability to summon all of one's powers 
upon occasion for extraordinary exertion, and to exhibit 
the knowledge and power possessed upon a given theme. 

(2) It trains the pupil in the use of good language, 
concisely put, under limitations of time. 

(3) It requires the exercise of judgment as to essentials 
and non-essentials, 

(4) It solidifies and classifies the knowledge of the sub- 
ject in the mind of the pupil. 

(5) It shows both teacher and pupil wherein the prep- 
aration has been weak or deficient, and where it has 
proved satisfactory. 

^2. What should be the character of the examination ? 

It should be a fair test of the work that has been cov- 
ered, should be free from enigmas, and the language 
should be such that there can be no doubt as to the mean- 
ing of the question. It should not be a mere test of 
memory and fact, but should determine the accuracy, 
thoroughness and power attained by the pupil. 

^j. What is the difference between a test and an exami- 
nation. 

A test occurs at the regular time of the recitation, 
covers a limited amount of work, is unannounced, and 
does not disturb the regular routine of the school. It 
has many of the educational values of an examination, 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 369 

without the strain and excitement which attend the more 
formal examination. It shows what the pupil knows or 
lacks, and the weaknesses which it reveals may be cor- 
rected by subsequent reviews. . 

^/. Reviews — their need and value. 

Reviews should occur often, and be systematic and 
persistent in character. Each recitation should begin 
with a review of previous work, in order to connect the 
known with the unknown and to enable the child to use 
the knowledge already possessed in the acquirement of 
new knowledge. By reviews, impressions are deepened, 
obscure points made clear, and ideas classified and fixed. 

-^5, Of what should a recitation consist ? What should 
be its objects ? 

Every recitation should consist of instruction by the 
teacher and recitation by the pupils. Its objects should 
be to find out what the pupil knows, to fix more firmly 
his knowledge, to help him to understand more clearly 
what he has already been taught, and to impart new 
knowledge. 

^6. What are the five steps of the recitation ? 

(1) Preparation such as will enable the children to 
receive the lesson to be taught. 

(2) Presentation of the subject matter in a clear, logi- 
cal way. 

(3) Association with such knowledge as the child 
already possesses. 

(4) Recapitulation by the pupil of the principal points 
that have been brought out in the lesson. 

(5) Application of the knowledge gained, to the duties 
of every-day life. 

^7. How and when should a lesson be assigned? 

It is a part of the teacher's work to prepare the child 



370 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

to do his work, and this preparation is made in the 
assignment of the lesson. In assigning a new lesson 
attention should be directed to the essentials, special 
difficulties should be pointed out, and such hints given 
as may be necessary to aid the pupil in his study. 

It is sometimes more important to assign the new 
lesson properly than it is to hear the lesson of the day. 
That sufficient time may be given to this assignment it 
is usually best to plan for the next lesson at the beginning 
of a recitation period. 

^8. How should pupils be taught to study ? 

(1) Before beginning to study, all materials should be 
collected and arranged. Then there should be a definite 
time for study — children should be taught to take up the 
study of each lesson at the proper time, and to stick to 
that particular task until it is mastered. 

(2)) The essentials of the lesson should receive most 
attention, and the mind should be concentrated entirely 
upon the work in hand. It is not the amount of time 
spent over a lesson which causes it to be mastered, but 
the intensity of application. Pupils should so learn to 
concentrate their minds upon their work as not to be 
distracted or disturbed by anything which may be going 
on about them. 

(3) Teach the pupils to master each step with thorough- 
ness before going on to the next. 

(4) The pupil must go over the work a sufficient num- 
ber of times to make it clear to his mind and to fix it in 
his memory. 

^p. Give so7ne suggestions as to the character of ques- 
tions to be asked. 

(1) The questions should be clear, simple, and logical. 
' (2) They should be the outgrowth of the teacher's full 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 371 

knowledge of the subject, and not the set questions of 
the text-book. 

(3) They should have a definite purpose. 

(4) They should stimulate thought. Direct questions, 
and those in which the answer is implied, should not be 
used. 

50. What is the first essential to a recitation f Why ? 

The first essential to a recitation is attention, and 
without it teaching is impossible. If the mind is not 
fixed upon what is being taught, then the lesson makes 
no impression upon it, and consequently is not taken in. 
It is time worse than wasted, to attempt to teach a lesson 
without the attention of the pupils. 

57. Give suggestions as to how to secure and maintain 
attention. 

(1) Remove all disturbing influences. See to it that 
the pupils are physically comfortable, having looked 
after the ventilation, temperature, light, etc. 

(2) Secure the attitude of attention. The child who 
lounges in his seat or sits where he cannot see is not likely 
to be attentive. 

(3) Make the work interesting. Attention is not likely 
to be lost unless the interest wanes. 

(4) Do not make recitation periods too long. 

^2. What is interest? Its value ? How gained? 

Dr. Johnson says "Interest is the mother of attention, 
attention is the mother of memory. " No efficient work 
can be done without the child is interested. With little 
children interest is aroused through concrete illustration. 
With older children it is often gained indirectly. 
Children are generally interested in what they can do 
well. Hence if they are taught how to master a task, 
interest will be gained. 



372 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

The surest way, however, to interest a class in any 
feature of school work is for the teacher himself to be 
interested in that work. And the power of the teacher 
to awaken interest and hold attention is dependent largely 
upon the freshness of his knowledge. Therefore the 
teacher who will be an inspiraion to his pupils and who 
will arouse their interest, is the teacher, -who by daily 
preparation, brings to his pupils in all their beauty and 
freshness, things both new and old. 

5J. WJiat are some of tJie duties of the teacher to tJie 
child? 

The teacher should shield the health of the child, while 
in school, with intelligent care. He should teach him 
the simple laws of health, should guard him against 
exposure to disease, should note any defects in hearing 
or sight, or any other physical defects which may retard 
mental growth. Added to this is the consideration, at 
all times, of the intellectual and moral well being of the 
child, and the constant aim on the part of the teacher 
to secure a well balanced development of all the powers — 
to educate "hand, head, and heart." 

5^. What should be the relation of the teacher and the 
parents ? 

It is the duty of the teacher to keep in close touch with 
parents, to inform them of the progress or the serious 
misconduct of their children, and of all other matters of 
vital interest to them. There should be mutual confi- 
dence and perfect frankness between parents and teacher. 

Both are working for the good of the child and each 
should support and help the other. 

55. What is the duty of the teacher to the community ? 

The teacher is a public servant and it is his duty to 
manifest an interest in, and in some measure, participate 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT zU 

in the social, intellectual, and religious life of the com- 
munity. He should show proper respect for sacred 
things, and a due regard for public sentiment in all 
moral questions. 

^6. What of the relation of the teacher to the school 
board? 

The members of the school board are naturally the 
friends of the teacher, and if this relation is not sustained 
it is largely the fault of the teacher. The board have 
selected the teacher, and his success is a proof of their 
good judgment and wisdom. They stand between the 
people and the teacher, and are desirous of rendering the 
community good service through the work of the teacher. 
Make friends with the members of the school board, be 
courteous and respectful to them, talk freely to them of 
your plans and of the work of the school, and seek to gain 
their interest and co-operation. Do not annoy them, 
however, with petty trifles or be constantly asking for 
things which it is not in their power to get or which are 
not needed. When the school board sustain their teach- 
ers by every moral and material means at their command, 
when the teachers are competent to conduct the internal 
affairs of their school, and when these two forces work 
together in perfect harmony, it may be expected that the 
best educational results will follow. 

57. What does tJie teacher owe to his superior officers 
and his fellow teachers ? 

To his superintendent, principal, and fellow workers, 
the teacher owes loyalty and honest support. All are a 
part of one great body and all are striving for the success 
of the school. They may differ as to methods of obtain- 
ing the ends sought, but these differences should be sunk 
in the efforts made for the common good. There should 
be mutual sympathy between the teacher and those in 



374 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

office over him, and each should support the other in every 
duty and every function of school life. They should 
loyally hold together in word and deed, and each un- 
selfishly endeavor to further the success and interests of 
the other. 

58. What does the teacher owe to his profession ? 

It is the duty of every teacher to do all he can to sus- 
tain, dignify, and awaken respect for his calling. There 
is need in the teachers' profession of more of the spirit 
of loyalty, the mutual support, the fidelity, which mem- 
bers of other professions show each other. 

The teacher owes it to his profession to be well pre- 
pared for his work, and to keep abreast of the times in 
all that pertains to his special line of work. It is his 
duty to keep in touch with the educational world by 
reading the literature, both current and standard, which 
belongs to his profession. 

He owes it to his own advancement and thus to his 
profession, to meet and mingle with those of his own call- 
ing. One of the best means for the upbuilding of the 
teacher is the teachers' association or like organizations. 
There is found the help which comes through comparison 
of methods and experiences, the discussion of questions 
of discipline, the presentation of new discoveries, and the 
inspiration of personal contact with those having the 
same high aims. 

^g. What duties does the teacher owe to himself ? 

The teacher should take proper care of his own health, 
conserve his strength, and seek to bring the best that the 
world offers into his own life. In this way he will be 
better equipped to serve others while he secures blessings 
CO himself. 

Good food, proper clothing, plenty of outdoor exercise, 
freedom from restraint, good society, will not only pre- 
serve the health of the teacher, but will fill him with 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 375 

sunshine when he comes into his school, give him sound- 
ness of mind and body, and implant in him that beauty 
of spirit which makes him everywhere welcome, and fills 
life for him with gladness and joy. The teacher owes it 
to himself not to worry, not to be fretted by little things, 
but to be patient, kind, and happy in his work. 

The teacher must grow, and this advancement must be 
along lines both professional and general. Rapid strides 
are being made in all departments of educational enter- 
prise and the teacher who keeps pace with the times must 
watch these new ideas as they come up, examine them 
carefully and appropriate such as possess real value. But 
no teacher will confine his growth to purely professional 
lines. He must know what is going on in the great 
world of literature, science, art, history, politics and 
religion. He will follow a course of reading or study 
outside of his profession, which will enable him to escape 
the pedantic spirit, and will help him to be a man among 
men, to be at home in society, and to view life on a 
broader plane. 




CHAPTER XIII. 
METHODS OF TEACHING.* 

NOTION once prevailed in this country — nor has 
it entirely disappeared — that teaching is a natural 
gift and that the person possessing that gift 
needed but little preparation. Certain natural qualities 
are necessary for the successful teacher, f but the posses- 
sion of such innate qualities can never be a complete 
substitute for training. Otherwise there would be no 
need of normal schools, teachers' training classes, or 
pedagogical chairs in colleges. A boy may have a genius 
for mechanical work, but he must learn his trade. There 
is a right way to perform a task, and there are other 
ways by which doubtless it can be performed, but at loss 
of time and effort. In learning his trade the boy not 
only acquires skill in the use of tools, but he also learns 
the best methods, the best way of performing it. The 
unskilled artisan destroys materials, wastes time, and at 
the same time, finds his labor more arduous because he 
has not learned the best method. Every one recognizes 
the force of this illustration. Carrying the analogy to 
the teacher's calling, is not the necessity for training 
in method even more forceful ? The material with which 
the teacher is dealing, the child, is of inestimable value 
and it must not be spoiled. Indeed, even time wasted 
and mistakes made by the employment of false methods 

*See DeGarmo— "Essentials of Method." D. C. Pleath & Co., Boston ; Smith— 
"Systematic Methodology." Silver, Burdett & Co., New York : McMurry — 
"General Method." Macmillan, New York. 

t refer to Seeley's "School Management" p. 4, for a discussion of this topic. 



METHODS OF TEACHING 377 

on the part of the teacher are fraught with most serious 
consequences which, may be difficult to repair. Hence 
the great importance of correct methods of teaching. 

On the other hand, we may pause to remark that mere 
method does not make the good teacher. There was a 
normal school whose graduates knew little else but 
methods. They were so drilled in method that they 
were mere imitators of their teachers. They taught 
their classes according to fixed schemes or plans without 
originality or individuality. They taught as well the 
first year after graduation as they did in their later years, 
they showed no growth. They were full of method, but 
lacked in knowledge, in breadth, in educational philos- 
ophy. Mere method, then, however good it may be, can- 
not take the place of scholarship. But scholarship, even 
though it be so broad as a college training, should be 
supplemented by a study of method in order that the 
riches possessed by the teacher may be presented in the 
most natural, economical, and psychological manner. 
DeGarmo says, "There must be a rich content of knowl- 
edge, as well as the qualification derived from a few 
particulars." 

The teacher must possess a variety of methods. What 
appeals to one child often fails with another. Again, 
the presentation of a subject by more than one method 
serves to fix the lesson upon all. It is well to look at 
questions from many standpoints in order to obtain 
breadth and thoroughness. If I desire to take a trip to 
Europe I can better secure my purpose if there are many 
steamship lines than if there were but one. So if I know 
many methods of presenting a subject to a class I am far 
better equipped than if I knew but one. 

Then, too, the method employed with young children 
is quite different from that employed with adults. Hence 
the necessity of a knowledge of psychology, of the 



378 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

growth of the human mind, of the development of the 
child. The intent of the questions and suggestions 
which follow is to point out what mehod is, prove its 
importance, indicate the different kinds of method, show 
in a general way the methods that should be employed at 
different stages of the child's development, and thereby 
assist the teacher in presenting material to his classes 
with a minimum of error and so as to produce greatest 
results. 

Questions and Answers, 

1. What is method? 

"Method is a way of reaching a given end by a series 
of acts which tend to secure it. " From an educational 
standpoint method may be defined as a systematic plan 
of presenting a truth as a lesson. 

2. Why is method important to the teacher ? 

(a) It suggests the best way of presenting truth. 

(b) It saves time and effort, eliminating the unneces- 
sary and avoiding waste. 

(c) It discovers the essential and lays chief stress upon 
it, omitting the non-essential. 

(d) It utilizes the experience and knowledge already 
gained by others, thus making further progress possible. 

(e) It gives confidence to the teacher as to the profes- 
sional character of his work the same as clinic work gives 
confidence to the young physician. 

J. Give some cautions in regard to method. 

(a) It must not be substituted for knowledge. The 
teacher must not forget that method is a manner of pre- 
senting the truth but not the truth itself. 

(b) It should not degenerate into a mere copying of 
the mannerisms of some other person however skillful 
that person may be. While there are certain principles 



METHODS OF TEACHING 379 

that should guide in presenting truth, the individuality 
of the teacher, and the character and advancement of the 
pupils are also to be taken into account. 

(c) No teacher should attempt blindly to copy the 
method of some one else, however successful that one may 
be. Originality and versatility count far more than 
formal method. 

(d) Do not attempt to present the same truth in the 
same way at all times. Some children comprehend only 
through extraordinary methods. Hence the teacher 
must be versatile, must present the truth by various 
methods. Even the pupils who have really understood 
through the presentation of a subject by one method, 
will understand better and be more apt to retain if the 
same lesson is presented by other methods. 

(e) Do not be a slave to method. While there are 
certain principles which hold method, sometimes unusual 
devices must be employed. Let method be a guide and 
a help but not a master. The main thing is to bring 
the truth to the comprehension of the pupils. 

^. Why is method important ? 

Just as the unskilled laborer works harder than the 
trained artisan because he does not know how to take 
advantage of his tasks, so the teacher who does not know 
method labors at a great disadvantage. Method fur- 
nishes the plan of attacking a problem, but does not pre- 
vent the exercise of individuality. It becomes the ser- 
vant of the teacher and enables him to produce the best 
results according to his own ideals, and taking into 
account his own personality. The teacher must not be 
a slave to method. He must employ it as a guide, as a 
servant through which his definite aims are to be reached. 
He must not think of his method as a finished product in 
itself, but as a means of securing the ends sought. The 
teacher must not let adherence to any particular method 



38o SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 

so absorb his attention or control his teaching that he 
forgets the main purpose, that of teaching the lesson so 
that the child grasps it. Hence the teacher, master of 
many methods, will be able to adapt himself to the 
particular class, or to the individual child. The true 
teacher, equipped with a variety of methods, will adapt 
himself to each individual case in hand and employ the 
right method as an instrument to secure the desired 
result. Method is the instrument of securing the result 
and not the result itself. There is a great deal of truth 
in the remark of an old superintendent, "I do not care 
which way my teachers take their pupils around the 
block, the main thing is that they get around the block." 

5. What is the Socratic Method? 

Socrates visited public places and taught wherever he 
could find pupils. By a series of skillful questions, gen- 
erally answered by "yes" or "no" or by a word or two, 
he led up to some truth that was in his mind from the 
outset, and which he finally led his pupils to see and 
admit. Questions that admit of "yes" or "no" answers 
should generally be avoided in teaching a class. Such 
teaching is often far from Socratic. It admits of guesses 
and may not inspire thought. The Socratic teaching 
arouses interest, holds attention, and arrives at truth. 

6. Give an example of Socratic teaching. 

*Socrates. You say well. Come, then, answer me, 
respecting rhetoric. Of what is it a science ? 

Gorgias. Of words. 

Socr. What kind of words, Gorgias? Are they such 
as inform the sick by what kind of diet they may become 
well? 

Gorg. No. 

*The selection is taken from Plato s dialogues, the one entitled 'Gorgias, or ou 
Rhetoric." 



METHODS OF TEACHING 381 

Socr. Rhetoric, then, is not concerned with all kinds 
of words ? 

Gorg. Certainly not. 

Socr. Yet it makes men able to speak? 

Gorg. Yes. 

Socr. And does it not enable men to think on the 
same things on which it enables them to speak ? 

Gorg. Without doubt. 

Socr. Does not, then, the medicinal art, of which we 
just now spoke, make men able to think, and speak 
about the sick ? 

Gorg. Necessarily so. 

Socr. The medicinal art, then, as it appears, is con- 
versant with words ? 

Gorg. Yes. 

Socr. And those that concern diseases? 

Gorg. Just so. 

Socr. And is not the gymnastic art also conversant 
with words that relate to the good and bad habit of 
bodies? 

Gorg. Certainly. 

Socr. And it is the same with other arts, Gorgias; 
each of them is conversant with those words that are 
employed about that particular thing of which each is 
the art ? 

Gorg. It appears so. 

Socr. Why, then, do you not call other arts rhetori- 
cal, as being conversant with words, since you call that 
rhetoric which is employed about words ? 

Gorg. Because, Socrates, almost the whole science of 
other arts is conversant with manual operations and such- 
like actions; in rhetoric, however, there is no such manual 
operation, but all its activity and efficiency are by means 
of words. For this reason, I consider that the art of 



382 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

rhetoric is conversant with words, herein speaking cor- 
rectly, as I affirm. 

Socr. Do I understand what kind of art you wish to 
call it? But I shall soon comprehend it more clearly. 
However, answer me? We have arts, have we not? 

Gorg. Yes. 

Socr. Of all the arts, some, I think, consist principally 
in workmanship, and stand in need of few words, and 
others of none at all, but their work may be accomplished 
in silence, as painting, statuary, and many others. With 
such arts, you appear to say to me, rhetoric has nothing 
to do, is it not so? 

Gorg. You apprehend my meaning perfectly, Socrates. 

Socr. On the other hand, there are other arts which 
accomplish all by means of words, and require no work at 
all, or very little, such as theoretical and practical arith- 
metic, geometry, the game of dice, and many other arts; 
some of which require almost as many words as actions, 
and most of them more, so that altogether their whole 
activity and efficiency are by means of words. You 
appear to me to say that rhetoric is among arts of this 
kind. 

Gorg. You say truly.* 

7. What is the analytic Method ? f 

'''Th^ aitalytic method of teaching is the method in 
which we set out with individuals or wholes, and proceed 
to a consideration of the parts of which they are com- 
posed." 

♦space does not permit me to quote this dialogue complete, in which Socrates 
through his questions finally establishes the truth that he had in mind at the 
outset. The above will suffice to illustrate the Socratic method and show to 
that every question and answer called forth thought. 

t See Smith's "Systematic Methodology," p. iii. The distsnctions of 
methods are so clearly set forth here, and the illustrations so good that I quote 
largely. > 



METHODS OF TEACHING 383 

8. Give examples of the analytic Method. 

"Starting with a flower and proceeding to the study of 
its parts — calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, etc. — is an 
example of analytic teaching. As examples of the 
analytic method of procedure in other studies may be 
mentioned: taking a sentence in grammar and proceed- 
ing from that to a consideration of its parts, — subject, 
copula, predicate, modifiers, etc. ; taking a problem in 
arithmetic and proceeding to its solution by the method 
of independent analysis: taking a state or country in 
geography and proceeding to learn the several parts (the 
names, locations, and characteristics of the particular 
rivers, mountains, towns, etc.) of which it is composed. 
In the analytic method of teaching we have given us the 
individuals or wholes, which are simply the parts in their 
proper relations to each other ^ and we proceed to consider 
each of these parts as if it were then a separate thing." 

p. What is the synthetic Method ? 

"The synthetic method of teaching is the method in 
which we set out with the dissociated parts of things and 
proceed to bring these into proper relation to each other, 
so as to construct as a final product the individual." 

10. Give examples of the synthetic Method. 

"Having a pile of dissolved bones, studying the function 
of each and then bringing them into such relation with 
one another as to produce finally the human skeleton, is 
an example of a synthetic method of teaching. Taking 
isolated words and building possible sentences with them 
is a synthetic procedure. Other examples are: teaching 
letters and then from these constructing certain words; 
learning about a particular river, its surroundings, the 
towns upon its banks, and further particular items, until 
we have built up a picture of some particular state." 

//. What is the inductive Method ? 



384 SEELEY \S QUESTION BOOK 

"The inductive method of teaching is the method in 
which we set out with individual things, and by a com- 
parative study of several individuals — noting likenesses 
and differences — develop general notions or generaliza- 
tions; or, we begin with generalizations of a given order 
and by their comparative study we arrive at still wider 
generalizations. ' ' 

12, Give examples of the inductive method. 

'* Solving several problems in arithmetic by independ- 
ent analysis, and then, by comparison of their processes, 
formulating a rule for the solution of such problems, is 
an inductive process. Generalizing definitions, rules, 
laws, and principles, from a comparative study of parts, 
is inductive." 

7j. What is the deductive Method? 

"The deductive method of teaching is the method in 
which we set out with generalizations (definitions, rules, 
laws, or principles) and proceed to their application in 
individual cases. " 

7^. Give examples of the deductive method. 

"Committing rules m arithmetic and then applying 
them to the solution of problems; studying the definitions 
of geography from a book and then proceeding to find 
them illustrated in the land and water forms about the 
school, reading the generalizations about the human 
body, which are contained in the ordinary works on 
physiology, and proceeding to examine our bodies in 
order to verify them; studying botany by first reading 
the book statements about plants, and following this by 
an examination of specimens of the plants previously 
described; starting with the axioms of mathematics and 
proceeding by a demonstrative process to principles, 
rules, and the solution of problems." 



METHODS OF TEACHING 385 

75. How are these methods often confused ? 

The analytic method is considerd the same as the 
deductive because both start with individuals or wholes; 
and the synthetic method is regarded as identical with 
the inductive because both set out with parts. 

16. What is the distmction between these methods ? 

The analytic and synthetic methods "have to do only 
with the mental movement between single things and 
their parts," while inductive and deductive "apply only 
to those mental movements which involve a passage from, 
generalizations, never to the mental movements between 
individual things and their several parts." 

77. Give ail illustration of the synthetic a7id the induc- 
tive process. 

Take the words "was," "swimming," "in," "George," 
"river," "the," "afternoon," "this." The child may 
construct by synthetic process the sentence, "George was 
swimming in the river this afternoon." This is syn- 
thetic because the dissociated parts or words are brought 
together into a unit or sentence which conveys a thought. 
I may take this and many other sentences which express 
facts or tell something and we get a class which we call 
declarative sentences; stated in the form of questions 
they become interrogative sentences; as commmands 
they become imperative sentences. The terms declara- 
tive, interrogative, imperative apply not only to this 
sentence but also to all others of like character. They 
are therefore general terms. We arrive at general 
terms, such as rules, principles, etc., by the inductive 
method. We arrive at individual units, as a sentence 
built up from isolated words, or a word formed from let- 
ters, by the synthetic method. 

18. Give an illustration of the analytic and the deduc- 
tive f}tethod. 



386 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

Take an example in long division. We proceed step 
by step analyzing, taking apart, treating the exam;:le as 
an individual or starting with a country, we learn of its 
cities, its rivers, its mountains. This is the analytic 
method because we start with the whole and consider 
each of its parts as a separate thing. Let the child 
commit to memory a rule in arithmetic and seek to apply 
it in the solution of examples, or learn statements from 
a work on physiology and attempt to verify them by 
examining his own body, and he is proceeding by the 
deductive method. The analytic and the synthetic 
methods deal with individuals, and the inductive and the 
deductive methods draX with generalizations, or princi- 
ples. The teacher should carefully distinguish between 
these mxCthods and seek to apply the proper method at 
each stage of the child's development, and with each 
subject. 

/p. What ether methods may be mentioned ? 

(a) The oral method, in which the teacher presents the 
subject wit .out the aid of a text-book. 

(b) The text-book method, in which the teacher closely 
follows the book. 

(c) The lecture method, in which the material is pre- 
sented in the form of lectures and in which the pupils 
take no active part. 

20. What application should be made of these methods ? 

The oral method is peculiarly suited to little children. 
With older children text-books should be employed, not 
with slavish subservience, but as guides. To abandon the 
text-book, is to reject what the past teaches — its expe- 
rience, its knowledge, its method, its accumulated wis- 
dom. It adds needlessly to the burdens of the teacher. 
Unless the teacher be unusually wise and experienced 



METHODS OF TEACHING 387 

the absence of the text-book would mean aimless drifting, 
and want of systematic progress. Text-books are the 
product of the wisdom and experience of the past, and 
there is no reason why they should not be employed. But 
the teacher must be so familiar with the contents of the 
text-book as to be free from the necessity of employing it 
in class-work. No teacher can make the most forceful im- 
pression who must depend upon the text-book in instruct- 
ing a class. Let the text-book be a guide as to method 
and material. There is no reason why the accumulated 
wisdom of the past, as conserved in the progressive text- 
book, should not be utilized by the teacher and pupils. 

The lecture method is suitable only for mature stu- 
dents, and therefore has but little application in the 
elementary school. 

21. What is the method of development with 'oung chil- 
dren ? 

The synthetic and the inductive processes are suited 
to children. They begin with the objects and things at 
hand and proceed to the remote. They go from individ- 
ual notions to general notions. It would be a mistake to 
give the young child a rule or principle at the outset and 
lead him back to the facts from which these generaliza- 
tions are derived. Take arithmetic for example, — ^many 
problems must be given, the pupils explaining how each 
individual one is done until they are able to tell how any 
problem of that class is performed. This final statement 
is a rule. Thus inductively he proceeds from the indi- 
vidual to the general. 

22. What method sJiould be followed later f 

Older pupils generally will employ the analytic or de- 
ductive process. Thus in geometry the theorem may be 
given at the outset and the pupil taught to demonstrate it. 



^ 



388 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

^j. What final suggestions should be made ? 

While in general the development of the child and the 
method to be employed will follow laws as set forth in the 
preceding pages, the versatile teacher will be able to 
adapt himself to individual cases. He will not hesitate 
to employ any or all of these methods as circumstances 
may demand. If one method fails another will be tried 
until the truth is brought home and fixed. Even when 
the pupils seem to comprehend a lesson as taught by one 
method, it is well to present it by another, thereby 
securing an all-round and thorough understanding of 
the truth. Let method be an instrument in the hands of 
the teacher to secure the bringing home of truth to the 
minds of the pupils, and not a dictator, a servant and 
not a master. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

NATURE STUDY. 

THE three leading points which claim our attention, 
in considering the subject of nature study are, 
aims, materials, and methods. 

The aims of nature study are: First, to establish a 
more harmonious relation between the child and his 
environment. 

Second, to train the powers of observation, memory, 
judgment, and reason. 

Third, to cultivate a sympathetic acquaintance with 
nature, to lead to an appreciation of the beautiful in 
form, purpose and adjustment, and to recognize the 
beauty and exactness of natural law. 

The prime object of this study is not to teach the child 
about nature nor to fill his mind with scientific facts, but 
its purpose is to make him a student of nature, to ac- 
quaint him with some of the most common natural phe- 
nomena, and to develop within him a love for all created 
things. 

The best materials for nature study are plants and 
animals in their constantly changing environment. 
Emphasis should be placed at all times, upon plants and 
animals as living things, and the phenomena of life 
should ever be made prominent. The presence in the 
schoolroom of plants and animals will not only furnish 
material for nature study but will arouse a deep interest 
on the part of the children, and lead them to observe 
more carefully the processes of life and growth. Both 



390 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

in city and country there is a wealth of material for this 
work. That the teacher may not be embarrassed by the 
quantity and variety which are presented, it will be best 
to choose a few general lines of investigation and to fol- 
low them systematically and with a definite aim in view. 

It must be kept in mind always, that nature study is 
not a subject to be taught from text books. Books of a 
scientific character, and books which furnish plans and 
methods of study may be used with profit by the teacher 
for personal information and help in preparation. But 
nature study /^r se, must be the study of the thing itself 
both by teacher and pupil, otherwise it is without value. 
No amount of book knowledge about the life of a bird or 
the growth of a flower can ever equal the knowledge gained 
by the child from his own observation of the life and 
habits of the bird, or of the processes of growth of the 
flower through its life cycle. The teacher needs to know 
some of the scientific facts which the book records in 
order to guide the child in his investigations, but the 
knowledge gained from personal observation and study 
is the knowledge which possesses real value for the 
child. 

The most important phase of nature study, therefore, 
is the method employed. It matters not so much what 
the child studies as how he studies. Failure to 
recognize this fact often makes much of the so-called 
nature study in our school merely desultory, and the 
time given to it is worse than wasted. 

Pupils should be taught how to study in a careful sys- 
tematic manner. They should be made to know the dif- 
ference between merely looking at an object and observ- 
ing it, between observing it and studying it with a defi- 
nite aim. Only such subjects should be chosen for nature 
study as can be presented objectively, and preference 
should always be given to those which have the most 



NATURE STUDY 391 

interest for the child. So far as possible all material 
should be observed in its natural environment. The 
child should be led to make observations for himself and 
to report such observations definitely and accurately. 
This report may be given verbally or in writing. It 
should consist of important points and leading facts and 
sho'ild omit all minor details. In presenting subjects to 
the class, the form, habits and relations to man should 
precede the study of structure and physiological rela- 
tions. 

Each season suggests definite ideas for nature work 
and ample material is available for the exemplification. 

The autumn thought is the preparation for winter 
through protection and storage, by plants, animals and 
people. The ripening of fruits, falling of the leaves, pro- 
tection of buds, and dissemination of seeds, denote the 
completion of the cycle of production in the plant world, 
and the preparation for rest. 

The migration of the birds, the laying up of food by 
the squirrels, the building of homes by the beavers, the 
thickened coats of the sheep — all these are but types of 
the provision which instinct teaches the animal world to 
make for the winter time. 

The gathering and storing of grains and fruits and the 
many other preparations made by man for protection 
against winter's inroads, also afford subjects for study. 
Winter brings rest to the organic world and the conserva- 
tion and preservation of life during this period furnish a 
fertile field for investigation. The winter homes of ani- 
mals, the hardy plants and animals which are able to 
withstand the rigors of the season, the nourishment of 
animal bodies, fuel and protection from cold, the trees 
in winter, snow and its uses, are topics v^hich are full of 
vital interest. 

The reanimation of nature is the thought of spring. 



392 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

and the study of awakening life has a peculiar fascination 
for the child. The return of the birds, seeds and their 
germination, the opening buds, early flowers, prepara- 
tions for planting garden and field are a few of the many 
topics which this season suggests. 

The following outline is intended to furnish sugges- 
tions for nature study in the first six years of school, and 
is applicable to both city and rural schools. / 

FIRST YEAR. / , 

Study of autumn fruits and leaves. The caterpillar and 
cocoon. Migration of birds and the empty nests. Cat, dog, 
and other pets. Kindness to animals. Weather observa- 
tions. Observe maple tree throughout the year. Snow 
and its uses. The winter homes of a few animals. Our 
winter birds. Observation of leaf-buds. Seed3 and their 
germination. Parts of plant — root, stem, leaf, bud, and 
flower. The return of the birds — the pupils to learn to 
recognize some of the most common birds and to watch 
them building their nests and getting food. 

SECOND YEAR. 

Squirrels and rabbits — their homes, habits and food. 
Oak and pine trees observed throughout the year. Their 
life story, and value to man. Frost and its effects. 
Study of two native fruits and nuts. The going away of 
the birds. Weather observations. Wind. Changes of 
moon. Points of the compass. Nourishment of man and 
animals. Teeth, their use and care. The care and pro- 
tection of our winter birds. Germination. The plant- 
ing of grains, vegetables, etc., for food. Study of com- 
mon flowers. Observe the changes in the life history of 
the butterfly. Watch for the return of the birds. En- 
courage pupils to furnish them food, materials for nests, 



NATURE STUDY 393 

and nesting houses. Teach them to recognize and name 
a few of the most common birds. 

THIRD YEAR. 

Plant hfe according to season. Falling leaves, autumn 
seeds, etc. Flowers — appearance, parts, uses to plants. 
Study of birds as in Second Year. Show how helpful 
birds are to man and what may be done to help domesti- 
cate and protect them. The habits and transformation 
of the bee, ant, moth and butterfly. 

Heat and fuel. Weather study. Lessons on trees. 
Learn to distinguish by leaves, form and bark. Pupils 
should know\of a few of the most common evergreen and 
deciduous trees. 

FOURTH YEAR. 

Study of nut-bearing trees. Uses of leaves, roots, and 
sap. Study of root-plants such as beets, potatoes, etc. 
Study of grains from germination to harvest. 

Native wild animals, their habits and value. 

Study of insect life; spider, fly. Domestic animals, 
treatment, use, products, commercial value. 

Work of water and its various forms as snow, frost, 
rain, etc. Continue study of birds and spring flowers. 

FIFTH YEAR. 

Study plants as to their use. Plants used for medicinal 
purposes, for fibre, sap, etc. Plant and animal life of 
temperate and torrid zones compared. Hibernating ani- 
mals. Animals of the frigid zone. The silk worm. 
Industries. Pupils to know the principal trees of their 
native state, and to be familiar with the wild flowers in 
their locality. Study flowers as to parts, habits, soil re- 
quired, etc. Observations and experiments supplement- 
ing geography work. 



394 SEELE Y 'S QUESTION BOOK 

SIXTH YEAR. 

Trees and fall flowers. Dissemination of seeds. Trees 
of other countries. Forests and their effect upon climate. 
Characteristics of some of the most common flower fami- 
lies. 

Leaves classified as to outline. Medicinal and poison- 
ous plants. Rocks and minerals. Nature work to sup- 
plement geography. 

It would not be practical to attempt to teach all the 
subjects enumerated in the above outline, but such topics 
should be chosen as can be studied to an advantage in a 
given locality. All classroom work in nature study 
should be supplemented by field work and outdoor re- 
search. Stories, fables, poems, and other literature per- 
taining to the subjects taught, should be used. Through- 
out the course everything studied should be viewed in 
its relation to man's welfare and happiness. 

As the child comes to appreciate more this fact of the 
mutual relation of all created life, he will be brought into 
closer sympathy with his physical environment, and will 
gain that esthetic, ethical and moral culture which is the 
true result of the study of nature. 



CHAPTER XV. 

CURRENT EVENTS. 

THE efficiency of the teacher is measured largely by 
the acquirements of his pupils. The standards 
of efficiency vary, however, with the years. Roger 
Ascham, the tutor of Queen Elizabeth, so taught his illus- 
trious pupil that she became a proficient Latin and Greek 
scholar at a very early age. Upon this and similar 
achievements rests his fame, for Ascham was accounted 
the greatest teacher of his time. He lived in the days 
when the student was a recluse, when he shut himself 
up in his library or laboratory and spent his time in try- 
ing to discover the philosopher's stone, or square the cir- 
cle, or in attempting to solve some equally impractical 
mental or scientific problem. He lived in the world of 
mind while the world of life was to him a sealed book. 

The activities of the student of today are very differ- 
ent. Whatever he may seek in books or laboratories, he 
must ever keep in touch with the throbbing heart of the 
world and make his researches and discoveries accord 
with its needs. 

What is true of the student is also true of the teacher. 
The standard of today does not count that teacher 
efficient whose only ability lies in the power to impart 
a knowledge of Greek and Latin roots, or maintain order 
by the use of a ferule. The teacher of the present must 
be a man with not only a broad knowledge gained from 
books, but also one whose mental acquirements keep 
pace with the life and thought of the world at large. 

The greatest agency in the world today for the dessem- 



396 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

ination of knowledge, is the public press. To the news- 
paper, the magazine, and the many periodicals and books 
published, teacher and student alike, must look for infor- 
mation and instruction upon both general and professional 
subjects. While the newspaper has its faults, yet it is 
the great source of information as to the what^ how^ and 
why of the things which are taking place in the world — 
in short it is the record of organized experience. Maga- 
zines and similar periodicals, furnish discussions and 
articles full of valuable thought and knowledge along all 
lines of literature, science, art, politics, ethics and mor- 
als. With such an abundance of material at his com- 
mand the student is confronted with two great questions, 
"What to read?" and "How to read?" While to the 
teacher the third question comes, "How can I induce my 
pupils to read and thus make this wealth of knowledge 
contribute to their welfare and enlightenment?" 

In considering the questions just propounded, it is our 
purpose to confine ourselves to such phases of the subject 
as refer to the acquirement of a knowledge of current 
topics, and to a few practical suggestions as to the study 
of current events in the schoolroom. 

The person who wishes to read or study upon a specific 
subject has a comparatively easy task in answering the 
question, "What to read ?" But the man who wishes to 
gain a general knowledge of the events which are trans- 
piring about him has more difficulty in formulating a 
satisfactory answer to this question. 

The class of reading matter which is most abundant 
and most accessible is the newspaper. A man who does 
not read the newspaper will never become educated in 
the highest sense of the world. The reader of the news- 
paper not only gains information along specific lines, but 
his horizon is broadened, his experience is enlarged, and 
his sympathies are quickened. The man who reads the 



CURRENT EVENTS 397 

newspapers knows the life of the world; he who reads 
magazines learns what thoughtful men think of the 
world; while the reader of books views the world in its 
past history, its present needs, and its future possibili- 
ties. It is difficult to see how one who confines his read- 
ing exclusively to but one of these fields of reading can 
be broadly educated. 

In selecting reading matter the first consideration is 
the quality of the material chosen. One good news- 
paper, one or two magazines, and a few good books, 
thoughtfully read will be of more value than many times 
this number read aimlessly or carelessly. 

But the great fault with many is not in the choice of 
reading matter but in its use. There is no plan or pur- 
pose in the reading, and no especial thought is given to 
it. The first rule in reading a newspaper should be to 
omit all sensational articles. Read those portions which 
have some specific interest, then read such parts as give 
real irj.formation about national and international life and 
the affairs of the intellectual and moral world. If the 
rule relating to sensational matter is followed, it will not 
require much time to read many of the newspapers. 

The person who relies upon the newspaper for his 
knowledge of the happenings of the world, often finds, 
however, that the information gained is not always reli- 
able. The newspaper records a fact as presented at the 
time of the publication of the paper. Later develop- 
ments may prove the statement wholly untrue or may 
modify it so as to present it in an entirely different light. 
Because of this and the difficulty in choosing from the 
regular newspaper, and also because much that the aver- 
age newspaper contains is unfit for general reading in 
the home, many people prefer a well edited review or 
current events paper, which contains only authentic facts 
and well selected and suitable material. 



398 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

That we may be more specific in this discussion let us 
consider how a business man should read his newspaper 
and current events magazine. If he is a merchant the 
first thing to claim his attention will be the market price 
lists. Then he will look for those things which directly 
affect his business — the crop reports, the industrial 
conditions, etc. But he has no time to wade through the 
lengthy articles describing minor happenings of the 
strike that is on, or those recording contradictory state- 
ments regarding the war in progress, or the partisan 
report of a presidential convention, or the one-sided dis- 
cussion of a political issue. If he is a thoughtful man 
who really desires information upon any of these sub- 
jects, he will turn from the imperfect and incomplete 
statements of the daily newspaper to the well edited and 
carefully .compiled current events magazine. Here he 
will find the real facts regarding the subject, and a 
broad-minded and unbiased discussion of the topics in 
which he is interested. 

The teacher, while reading for his own benefit, also has 
before him the question of how to interest his pupils, 
how to lead them to read and how to make practical use 
of the study of current events in his school room. 

Without discussing the various points, a few sugges- 
tions are given in answer to these questions. 

First, provide material for the pupils to read. No 
school should be without one good current events paper. 

If other creditable papers and magazines are available 
they will be helpful, but a current events periodical is 
indispensable. 

Second, in the beginning permit the pupil to read from 
this paper what he pleases until he acquires an interest 
in reading. He will read more as his intellectual capac- 
ity increases. 



CURRENT EVENTS 399 

Third, make definite use of material from this paper 
in the regular lessons. 

Fourth, plan for a bulletin board, a scrapbook, or some 
other means of displaying and preserving clippings. 

Fifth, encourage pupils to bring to school such mate- 
rial as has a bearing upon the various subjects which are 
being studied. 

It is not to be expected that the current happenings of 
the world will be in accord with definite lessons in the 
textbook. Teach the textbook lesson if you must, but 
in some way connect it with some event of immediate 
occurrence. In geography a news item presented by a 
pupil may be made the basis of a lesson. If events of 
importance are transpiring in a certain place, rehearse 
these events, locate the place, and show how these events 
affect other localities. Lead the pupils to see that a place 
is often geographically important because of these events. 

Problems growing out of statements of industrial con- 
ditions, market reports, price lists, financial statements, 
etc., possess more interest for the child and are far more 
practical than those found in the text-book. In teach- 
ing history, the knowledge of current topics is most 
essential, for our understanding of past history is depend- 
ent largely upon our knowledge of present events. If 
a war is in progress, the events transpiring will lead to a 
better understanding of past wars. If important discov- 
eries or wonderful inventions are being made, a knowl- 
edge of them will help to a more intelligent study of 
former achievements of this kind. Several times in the 
recent past our papers have given an account of the 
launching of a new battleship. After noting this event, 
lead the pupils to a study of the beginning of our navy, 
the great maritime battles in our history, or the first 
conflict of ironclad vessels. 

A boy may be able to spell all the obsolete words in a 



SEE LEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

half-dozen spelling books, but if he can master a list of 
practical words taken from a current school paper he is 
acquiring a working vocabulary v/hich will be of real 
value to him. 

Current events and material gleaned from papers and 
magazines may be used to advantage as the sole basis 
for the study of civics. 

The articles referring to a municipal, state or national 
election, furnish the clew to the whole problem of the 
executive branch of government, the exercise of fran- 
chise, and the entire political machinery. A city ordi- 
nance will afford a starting point for the discussion of 
laws, while the body which enacted it is a type of all legis- 
lative bodies. A child always reads best what he likes 
and what possesses some interest for him. No better 
means can be found for improving the quality of school 
reading than that afforded by the reading aloud by 
pupils from a paper or magazine. 

What has been said of the use of current events in con- 
nection with the studies just mentioned applies to all the 
subjects of the curriculum. The immediate results of 
such teaching are, a deeper interest in school and lessons, 
and a broadening outlook upon the world at large. 
While the habit of looking into the events of the world 
and of reading papers and periodicals, enables the pupil 
to acquire a standard of taste which will be of the high- 
est value in after life. All progressive schools give train- 
ing in the use of book literature. But the majority of 
our pupils after they are out of school, will wish to read 
along the lines of political, social, and business life, and 
such reading matter belongs almost wholly to the realm 
of newspaper and periodical literature. Hence, aside from 
the benefits resulting from the study of current events 
in the school room, the pupils are gaining such training 
as will be of inestimable value to them in after life. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
DRAWING AND WRITING. 

ART education in the public schools has for its aim 
this three-fold purpose — to give to the child a 
means of expression; to cultivate his powers of 
observation ; and to develop his esthetic nature. It is 
not expected that it will produce finished artists, but it 
is intended that the training afforded will be such as to 
develop head, hand, and heart in the expression and 
appreciation of beauty. It is not made a part of the 
curriculum for the benefit of the artistic few, but for the 
good of the inartistic many. These are the ones who 
need just such training to refine and elevate their tastes 
and to brighten and enrich their lives. Mistaken ideas 
as to the aims of public school drawing, and lack of 
knowledge of how to teach this subject, often deter regu- 
lar teachers from attempting it in their schools. 

While it is acknowledged that well rounded, successful 
work can be best done under the direction of a competent 
supervisor, yet there are many phases of the subject 
which can be well taught and used to advantage by every 
teacher. If the drawings made by pupils below the high 
school (and often the work of the high school too), were 
judged only by the standard of value as works of art 
then about all would be cast aside as worthless. 

Children in the public schools are not capable of pro- 
ducing finished artistic drawings. What results then 
should be expected from the drawing in the grades? 
It should express the child's idea of form, size, color, and 
proportion. It should record his observation of growth, 



402 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

arrangement, coloring, etc. It should express his thought 
of the activities of the world about him and show in a tan- 
gible form something of the development and workings of 
his imagination. 

These are a few of the things which the material prod- 
uct of the teaching of drawing should show. Yet if 
these are the only results obtained the work has failed in 
its purpose and the time given to it has not been well 
spent. The material product has its place and should 
always be an evidence of thoughtful, earnest effort. But 
far exceeding it in value is the effect of the work upon 
the pupil himself. The child's drawing may be very 
poor, but if, as a result of his efforts, the child shows 
quickened sensibilities, keener perception or awakened 
appreciation, the lesson has been a success. 

Many people look upon the ability to draw as a gift. 
The ability to draw well may be a gift, just as the ability 
to sing well is a gift. But the power to represent 
thought by means of drawing is just as much a natural 
faculty of every individual as is the faculty of speech. 

Give a little child a pencil and paper and tell him to 
show you a dog. What does he do ? Write the word 
dog? Or talk about his dog? Not at all. He will draw 
what to him is a picture of his dog. Drawing is to him 
the vehicle of expression. That he does not use it more 
as he grows older is because his freedom is suppressed by 
our adverse criticism or faulty teaching. 

The child learns to draw by drawing. And throughout 
his school life he should be encouraged to use this method 
of expressing his ideas just as much as he is taught to ex- 
press his thoughts in speaking or writing. 

As he grows older more attention should be given to 
teaching him a few of the leading principles and methods 
of work and in directing his attention to the productions 
of a few of the great artists. Such a course of art edu- 



DRAWING AND WRITING 403 

cation can be planned and pursued by any teacher and 
the results will be a freer expression of thought by the 
pupils, a keener observation, and a more refined taste and 
a deeper love for and appreciation of beauty. 

It is not the intention to present any definite outline of 
work, but rather to give a few general principles and 
make some suggestions which may be put into practical 
•use in schools of either single or mixed grades. The 
pencil is the most general medium available in the 
schools. The first thing to be taught is to hold the pen- 
cil correctly and to draw broad, soft lines. To do this 
well a soft pencil is best. 

Terms of location and position (as right, left, vertical 
etc.,) need to be taught as they are used. Simple 
geometric forms, as circle, square, oblong and triangle, 
should be named and drawn. The study of the most 
common forms — sphere, cube, cylinder, square, prism, 
etc., is necessary in order to give the child an idea of 
definite form. Except as types in the very beginning, it 
is best to teach these forms as they exist in various ob- 
jects rather than to make use of the solids. 

In drawing objects choose those which are not too diffi- 
cult and which possess some life interest for the child. 
Draw spherical objects first, rendering in outline only. 
Draw objects of a cylindrical .form, teaching the fore- 
shortening of the circle by observation, giving the prin- 
ciples which govern it later. Follow the same plan in 
teaching the drawing of cubical objects. After the 
pupils can see the convergence of the retreating lines then 
give them the rules which apply to the drawing of such 
lines. 

Choose such objects for drawing as are of good form 
but which have no striking decorations to distract atten- 
tion. Urge pupils to observe carefully and to remember 
that every line drawn should be the expression of a defi- 



404 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

nite idea. Fruits, vegetables, toys (for the younger 
pupils,) boxes, baskets, bowls, teapots, jugs, vase-forms 
etc., form good models for work in object drawing. At 
first the work should be finished in outline only, growth, 
texture and form being expressed by the variation in 
the line. Later values may be studied and applied in 
the rendering of still-life subjects. 

In order that pupils may gain a better conception of 
form and mass, and learn to omit unimportant details, 
brush drawing with ink should be taught.* Any objects, 
but especially those which have marked characteristics of 
form, may be used. Render in silhouette with brush 
and ink, without any previous drawing of outline. Leave 
highlights, and white lines to show where two objects 
touch each other or to indicate veins in leaves. 

In all grades, but especially with younger pupils, illus- 
trative and memory drawing should be used freely. This 
work not only develops the child's power of imagination 
and gives him an added means of thought expression, but 
it helps the teacher to know how much the pupil observes, 
whether he can form a clear mental picture of what he 
has seen, and whether he has any imagination. 

At first pupils should be asked to draw from the pic- 
tures in their own mind. This is pure memory drawing. 
Follow this by illustrative drawings of simple poems or 
stories which contain clear verbal pictures. Finally, illus- 
trate such stories and poems as require pictures which are 
purely imaginative. There should be free conversation 
about this work, but the actual drawing by the pupil 
should be done independently. 

In the line of so-called mechanical or constructive 
work there are a few principles which can be taught 
with profit to every school. 

*A good drawing ink may be made by pouring a pint of boiling water over 
one package of Diamond Dye (black for cotton) and allowing it to stand for a 
few hours before using. 



DRAWING 405 

Each pupil should learn the divisions indicated on the 
ruler, and be able to make practical application of the 
same in measurements involving the inch, foot, yard, 
and the parts of each of these. The making of a pattern 
drawing and the construction to a scale of a working 
drawing of a simple object should be taught. 

Where pupils are provided with materials for color 
work the scope of the drawing is enlarged and the inter- 
est in it is increased. 

Pupils should be taught to recognize and name the 
primary colors. To combine these colors to produce 
other colors. To observe color in nature, in fabrics, 
decorations, etc. They should be taught how to care for 
materials and should be carefully instructed as to proper 
methods of work. 

In beginning the use of color, exercises may be given 
in spreading fiat washes on dry and moist paper, blend- 
ing color in the brush, flowing in color on moist paper, 
and such other practice work as will lead to skill in hand- 
ling the brush and freedom in the use of color. 

Follow this work by landscape washes, nature work 
from fruits and colored vegetables, bright colored objects, 
grasses, sprays, flowers, and growing plants. This work 
should express form or growth, mass, and color, but all 
minor details should be omitted. There should be no 
outlining with pencil or brush, but the free handling 
with the brush full of color should be encouraged, and 
the effort should be made to express all the essentials in | 
the first wash. The drawing in pencil, ink or color 
should be applied whenever possible in practical design 
and decoration. Work in drawing which is done for a 
purpose is of much more value than that which is done 
merely for the sake of the doing. The following are 
but a few of the many ways in which drawing as applied 
in the industrial arts, may be taught: Designs for 



4o6 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

fabrics, floor and wall coverings, calendars, book and 
composition covers, decorated tiles for hearths, borders 
for towels and handkerchiefs, book racks, picture frames, 
sofa pillows, embroidery, etc., etc. 

The creative instinct is strong in the child and if he 
feels that he is making something and that the addition 
of a bit of drawing in decoration has stamped his in- 
dividuality upon it, the value in his eyes is greatly 
enhanced. 

It may not be possible for the teacher to carry out the 
work in drawing along all the lines suggested. But some 
one phase of the subject may be taken up, the work care- 
fully and definitely planned, and the ends to be sought 
kept clearly in mind. In this way much can be accom- 
plished and great profit and pleasure will accrue to both 
teacher and pupil. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

WRITING. 

THE power to read and write is the standard by 
which illiteracy is determined. Hence writing is-, 
a subject of the curriculum second in importance- 
only to reading. Not only must the educated person: 
possess the ability to get the thoughts of others from the 
printed page, but he must also be able to express his own 
thoughts with the pen for his own pleasure and for the 
information of others. The ability to express one's 
self, whether vocally or in writing, is a most excellent 
test of his power, and is very essential to his success in 
life. 

Every common school teacher must teach writing, and 
without doubt a clearer conception of the aim to be 
reached will assist materially in securing better penmen. 
It is not penmen who are capable of writing with a great 
many flourishes or who can execute in copy-plate 
fashion that we are seeking, but those that can write in 
an easy, fluent, smooth, plain hand, whether vertical, 
slant, or intermediate. And every child can reach this 
acquirement, if properly taught, without any reference 
to heredity. It is a foolish notion that a child must 
inherit a tendency to be a good penman in order to suc- 
ceed. But writing must not be considered as a hap- 
hazard exercise, a task at which the pupils may be set 
while the teacher goes on with some other lesson. It 
needs as careful and scientific instruction, according to a 
definite plan, as any other subject of the curriculum. 
Inasmuch as it is a universal requirement of all educated 



4o8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

persons, is of practical utility in gaining a livelihood, 
and is a source of so much enjoyment to the individual, 
it is worth doing and doing well. Let every teacher, 
then, study the aim and method of teaching writing as 
conscientiously as every other subject is studied. 

Before we can discuss the aim of writing there must 
be a common understanding as the meaning of the term. 
"Writing," says Prof. Farley,* "is registered motion 
subjected to the law of some form." It is not merely 
motion, for the hand may move through the air without 
writing, but that motion must be registered, as with pen 
or pencil. Nor is it the registering of mere marks, which 
might be meaningless scribbling conveying no intelli- 
gence. It must follow the law of some form that has 
been agreed upon and that indicates ideas or thoughts. 
We are to seek, then, to give our pupils the ability to 
register at will their ideas or those of others in such char- 
acters as will be understood by those who read. To do 
this we must know how to give instruction in writing." 

The importance of writing is increasingly appreciated. 
Prof. Farley says, "At no time in our history has the 
subject of writing agitated the minds of our leading 
educators and medical men as at present. Call it a fad 
or by any name you like. When men of the highest 
authority in medical science declare that the question of 
instruction in writing should occupy the first place, as 
the teaching of this subject is attended with so great 
danger to spinal curvature, breathing, and digestive 
disturbances, myopia or short sight; when such vital 
matters as the relation of writing to hygiene and the 
application of true educational principles are involved, is 
it not time to see that more attention is given to this 
subject by every teacher in our public schools?" 

*Prof. Farley is joint author with Dr. Gunnison of "The Normal Review Sys- 
tem of Writing," published by Silver, Burdett & Co., New York. 



WRITING 409 

Writing is by no means a mere mechanical exercise. 
We may notice some of the educational lessons to be 
acquired through writing. 

(1) It trains the muscles of the hand and brings them 
under control. 

(2) It cultivates the power of observation and teaches 
the child accuracy. 

(3) It teaches the child to fix the attention. 

(4) It cultivates the taste and strengthens the v/ill. 

(5) It gives delicacy to the sense of touch and skill in 
execution. 

(6) It trains the eye to accurate and careful seeing. 

(7) In a word, it brings some of the physical and 
intellectual powers under control of the will. These are 
the ends to be sought in writing, and to secure them 
requires adequate knowledge and skillful teaching. 

The question as to whether the system employed shall 
be the vertical, intermediate, or slant does not enter 
here. The purpose is to teach the child to register 
motion according to the law of some form, and Prof. 
Farley remarks: "The essential thing in form with ad- 
vanced pupils is not necessarily whether it slants one or 
more degrees to the right or left of the vertical when the 
pupil is conveying thought in written characters, but 
the main thing is whether the hand will respond quickly 
to the mandates of the will, in writing a free, smooth, 
and legible page." 

The teacher may ask, "But how shall this end be 
accomplished?" I remark once more, this is not a book 
of methods, but without doubt the only sure means of 
securing good writers is through copy-books. A few 
years ago it was the fashion to condemn all employment 
of text-books. Text-books had, doubtless, been too freely 
used and that caused a reaction which sought to abolish 
them entirely. But the schools have returned once more 



4IO SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

to the use of the text-book, no longer to follow it slav- 
ishly, but to accept it as a guide. There are peculiar 
reasons for the use of copy-books in writing. We will 
note some of them. 

(1) They systematize the work, following a sequential 
and carefully worked out plan. 

(2) They give stability to the work, enabling pupils 
and teacher to compare the work from time to time and 
to note progress. 

(3) They assist in fixing habits of neatness and accu- 
racy, the child being more careful with exercises put into 
a book than those written upon an isolated sheet. 

(4) They are more economical in the end because there 
is no waste. 

(5) They can be more easily and profitably examined 
and corrected by the teacher, a matter of great impor- 
tance when one considers the vast amount of exercises 
the teacher has to correct. 

(6) They teach many valuable lessons through the oft 
repeated and reviewed axioms, historical truths, and 
other facts presented in the copies. 

As to the use of the copy-book, I would like to quote 
once more from Prof. Farley. "The copy-book should 
be used as a means to an end and not as an end. Firsts 
dictate on practice paper from copy in book. Second^ 
compare and write in copy-book to learn form and to 
correct errors. Third, write again on paper as a test of 
improvement." Of course this plan could be employed 
only with pupils who have made advancement enough to 
be able to take dictation work. 

Prof. Farley's philosophy of writing is here presented 
in a series of "Don'ts. " 

"Don't put off the use of pen and ink. 



WRITING 411 

Don't expect a book to take the place of the teacher. 

Don't avoid, but give special attention to, the real 
difficulties. 

Don't think that twenty minutes of painstaking work 
in the copy-book will counteract the effect of careless 
work during the rest of the day. 

Don't emphasize the necessity of a very light line. 

Don't think that a copy-book well filled means that the 
copyist is a good writer. 

Don't attempt to have pupils write when fresh from 
play. 

Don't divorce movement exercises from form exercises. 

Don't forget the value of persistent review. 

Don't expect a child to do a man's work. 

Don't permit any abnormal position of the body at the 
desk. 

Don't be afraid to have the children criticise your 
work. Remember it is the child you are developing. 

Don't expect the pupil to be enthusiastic if the teacher 
is indifferent. 

Don't forget that a child gets a good precept of a form 
by seeing a good form, hence the necessity of a good 
copy from the first. 

Don't believe that anything except well directed repe- 
tition will lead to skill. 

Don't forget that, with a reasonable amount of study, 
patience and practice, any person having one healthy 
hand and one good eye, can acquire a free, and practical 
handwriting." 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
MANNERS AND MORALS.* 

THERE is a close connection between good manners 
and good morals. Rosenkranz says, "Politeness 
is the virtue of civilization," and Matthew Arnold 
declares that "Conduct is three-fourths of life." Hence 
there is no incongruity in treating these two subjects in 
one chapter. There is a great deal of unselfishness in 
the practice of good manners and unselfishness is surely 
a virtue. 

If the education of the child is wanting in moral train- 
ing it is sadly deficient, and perhaps worse than no edu- 
cation at all. For life must be formed on ethical founda- 
tions or the very acuteness developed by education is 
likely to become a danger rather than a blessing. Cer- 
tainly much of real success in life depends upon a right 
conception of moral life and the fixed habit of practicing 
virtue. Nor is the possession of good manners without 
its importance in securing success in business and in the 
ordinary relations with our fellow-men. Indeed, much 
more depends upon it than many persons think. Good 
breeding not only opens the doors of society, but it 
indicates self-control and self-poise, which are evidences 
of a good education, it makes one's society desirable, it 
shows thoughtfulness for others, it is an evidence that 
an individual is no longer a savage, a boor, but a civilized 
person. If this be true, the teacher should give far more 

*SeeSeeley's "Foundations of Ejducation," alsoSeeley's "New School Manage- 
ment. "In these books will be found a fuller discussion of moral instructioH 
than is here possible. 



MANNERS AND MORALS 413 

attention to the training of children in habits of polite- 
ness than is common, for every teacher seeks to do his 
best to prepare his pupils for life. 

During the past few years the French people have 
introduced moral instruction as a definite requirement of 
their curriculum and already it has been found to pro- 
duce a decided and beneficial effect upon the nation. 
There are but few school systems in this country where 
systematic moral instruction is required as a regular 
school exercise. While it may be impracticable for many 
schools to introduce regular exercises in morals, and its 
advisability may be debatable, there are some things 
that can and should be done. 

First of all, the teacher's moral life must be above 
reproach. It is a splendid commentary on our public 
school system that our teachers live up to so high a moral 
standard and are so universally beloved and respected for 
the purity and unselfishness of their lives. This counts 
for more than all else and without this all formal instruc- 
tion in morals would be wasted. The silent influence of 
a godly and pure life in the schoolroom and in the com- 
munity often counteracts the evil influences of the home 
and the street, and leads the child to noble aspirations 
and practices without a word concerning virtuous life 
being spoken. The teacher whom the child loves is his 
example and his guide, — what his teacher thinks and 
practices, he learns to believe and imitate. Surely a 
great responsibility as well as a great privilege rests with 
the teacher! 

Secondly, every lesson in arithmetic, or geography, or 
history, or other school subject, may have a moral aim. 
Not that a definite moral shall always be drawn, but by 
requiring accuracy, and thoroughness, and neatness, 
moral habits may be established in the child. Every 
time the child gets a correct answer he does something 



414 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 

towards the establishment of the habit of truthfulness ; 
every time he hands in an exercise that exemplifies his 
best effort as to neatness and accuracy he is gaining 
strength of character; every time he reads of a noble act 
in history he is inspired to be noble himself; every time 
he meets a beautiful and pure thought in literature he is 
made more pure. 

Thirdly, the discipline of the school should teach mor- 
als. If the child is trained to be on time at school or 
with his lessons he is learning the virtue of punctuality; 
if he is taught to be quiet and orderly he is learning to 
respect the rights of others; if he learns to govern him- 
self so that he measures his acts by his own inward 
monitor and not by the rules which the teacher through 
watchfulness enforces, he is gaining the preparation 
which will make him a good citizen. And so the purpose 
of school discipline will not be merely to keep the chil- 
dren out of mischief for five or six hours a day, but to 
train them to govern themselves according to standards 
of right and wrong which have become their own. 

Fourthly, daily incidents should be utilized in teaching 
morals. Incidents of the schoolroom or the playground, 
items taken from newspapers or events that occur from 
time to time should be wisely selected and their lessons 
brought home to the children. Most profound and last- 
ing impressions can thus be made, added force being 
given because the event has occurred under the pupils' 
eyes or within their environment. 

Fifthly, excellent moral effect is produced by beautiful 
and healthful surroundings. The presence of good 
pictures on the walls, cleanliness of the schoolroom and 
neatness in teacher and children, as well as fine external 
surroundings are most valuable agencies in teaching 
morals. Goethe says, "The best instruction is derived 
from the most complete environment." Lastly, litera- 



MANNERS AND MORALS 415 

ture and history will supply an abundance of material 
for moral instruction. The Bible, Aesop's Fables, 
Grimm's and Andersen's fairy tales, the biographies of 
many men, as well as general works on history or litera- 
ture furnish a rich material with which to give children 
high ideals of life. 

There is therefore no lack of suitable material and 
opportunity for teaching morals in the school. The 
principal thing is that the teacher shall recognize that 
the supreme end of education is moral character. It is 
not necessary that a course of study shall be outlined, or 
a specific hour of the day set apart for moral instruction 
in order that this end may be reached. It is necessary, 
however, that the teacher shall be possessed of a definite 
plan, which, by the means above indicated and by other 
means, he shall systematically carry out with the fixed 
aim of forming good character. There are times in 
every school when the most important duty the teacher 
has to perform is not to follow the program, not to teach 
the arithmetic or reading lesson, but to bring home some 
moral lesson, suggested possibly by an incident that has 
occurred right there, or by something that the school- 
work has called forth. The teacher that fails to recog- 
nize this, fails to appreciate his great opportunity, and 
the means of taking advantage of it. "Der Kopf, die 
Hand, dasHerz,"* said the great Professor Stoy of Jena, 
must all be included in a scheme of education. Superin- 
tendent Carr declares that "This culture of the moral 
understanding should be accompanied by a heart culture 
that causes the child to love the good. The moral sen- 
sibilities need cultivation as well as the moral intellect. 
But the final outgrowth of moral training is upright con- 
duct, and unless this result is attained the training goes 
for naught. The child should be taught to be industrious, 

♦The head, the hand, the heart. 



4i6 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

honest, truthful, obedient, patriotic, and reverential. His 
moral acts should be repeated until they become habits." 
It is impossible in the questions that follow to outline 
a complete code of morals or give the details of good 
manners. The teacher should possess a text book on 
these subjects.* It is hoped that the foregoing discus- 
sion has shown the importance of this work and that the 
questions will suggest to the teacher a practical way of 
giving such instruction. Upon the common school 
teacher largely rests the responsibility of training the 
future men and women of our country into habits of 
moral living and into the practice of good manners.! 

Questions and Answers. 

/. What is the first lesson in morals that a child should 
learn ? 

Obedience. Disobedience is an unnatural condition of 
the child. The child is naturally led by the parent, the 
teacher, or some one older or in authority over him. 

2. What right has the teacher to exact obedience ? 

The teacher is clothed with authority by virtue of the 
license he holds and by virtue of his appointment by 
the school trustees. 

J. How far does that authority exte^id ? 

In most states, the teacher has the same authority in 
the school that the parent possesses in the home, i7i loco 
parentis. 

^. What should be the character of the obedience ? 

* I have found ^E^verett's "Ethics for Young People," Ginn and Company, Bos- 
ton, I^ouise Fiske Bryson's "'Bvery Day Etiquette," Potter and Putnam, New 
York, andScherer's "Morals and Manners," Richardson, Smith & Co., New York, 
most excellent works. 

1 1 call attention to the discussion of Moral Instruction in "White's School 
Management," p. 218. An outline of lessons in morals and manners is given, 
together with stories illustrating moral qualities. 



MANNERS AND MORALS 417 

It should be prompt, genuine, complete. If not secured 
at once, the teacher must not be satisfied until there is 
genuine submission even though it require days to se- 
cure it.* 

5. Why is it important that the child should learn to 
obey in the school 7 

Through negligence or weakness in the home many 
children fail to learn this lesson. If the school does not 
succeed in imparting it, the child will lack respect for 
law and is likely to become a law-breaker, a criminal^ 
when he goes out into life. The state is strong enough 
to enforce its laws. The school should teach respect for 
and obedience to law thereby saving the child from the 
danger of encountering the heavy hand of the law through 
disobedience to it. 

6. Of what value is the power of self -control ? 
Self-control enables the individual to restrain passion, 

abstain from evil, maintain poise of mind, control the 
body, and keep command of all the powers. 

7. How is self-control taught ? 

By giving an intelligent conception of the powers of 
the body and mind. The child that is taught to sit 
erect, to carry his body in proper position, to walk firmly 
and easily, to bring his whole physical being under the 
direction of the will is being taught self-control. He 
who has learned to hold his mind to the matter in hand 
without regard to surrounding distractions has gained 
the power of self-control. Hence the school is peculiarly 
adapted to teach this habit. The teacher should utilize 
the subjects of the curriculum, the discipline, the whole 
life of the school to secure this end. 

8. How can discipline be utilized to this end? 

*See discussion of this point in Seeley's "School Management," p. 67. 



4i8 SEE LEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

There are two methods of discipline. In the first, the 
teacher by rules and constant vigilance in the enforce- 
ment of them may be able to keep the children in order. 
In this case the attitude of mind on the part of pupils 
is that the maintenance of discipline rests with the teach- 
er and the whole purpose is to escape detection. An 
evil committed, if undetected, causes the pupil but little 
conscientious qualm, — it is the teacher's business to pre- 
serve order. Indeed, to get ahead of the teacher is con- 
sidered quite a smart thing. 

In the other form of discipline, the child is placed on 
his honor*. He is taught to measure his deed by his own 
sense of right and wrong, by his inner consciousness. 
From this he cannot escape. It is true that some rules 
will be necessary in every school, but the pupil's attitude 
towards them will be that they are instruments to aid him 
in the carrying out of his own ideas of duty. Just in so 
far as the child possesses correct ideas of duty and is call- 
ed upon to exercise, these ideas is he trained to self-con- 
trol. School discipline therefore, is one of the most im- 
portant agencies in teaching children self-control. 

p. How is tuiselfishness taught '^ 

Most children are by nature selfish. If there are 
several children in a family, the opportunities for teach- 
ing unselfishness are great. They can be called upon to 
share with brothers and sisters. Everything does not 
center around them as in the case of an only child. The 
watchful teacher will discover many opportunities to 
teach unselfishness, not so much by requiring the pupils 
to share things with each other as by encouraging a 
generous spirit in games on the playground, in contests 
for honors, and in the mastery of tasks. This by no 
means indicates that a child shall not try to excel in his 

*I must again call attention to the full discussion of this subject in Seeley's 
"School Management," p. 74. 



MANNERS AND MORALS 419 

Studies and surpass his playmates in skill or endurance; 
it means that in showing superiority he shall not degrade 
or take advantage of his competitor. Unselfishness will 
prevent unmanly sport, the injury of opponents in order 
to "put them out of the game," it will take no mean 
advantage in school work. 

10. Suggest some means of teaching unselfishness. 
Utilize striking cases that occur on the playground or 

in the school, tell stories that may have been read or 
events that have transpired, recently or remotely, illus- 
trating this virtue. Mark with condemnation incidents 
that show selfishness. There are abundant incidents in 
history and literature, as well as in daily life, from which 
the teacher may draw. It will be found that children 
generally respond to this kind of teaching. 

11. How "tnay honesty be taught^ 

Children should early be taught the sacredness of the 
"mine and thine. " Too often they are lacking in honesty 
in small things. A little girl picked up some cracked 
stones bordering the side-walk before a neighbor's house, 
put them in her basket and was playing with them. 
"May, where did you get those stones?" asked her 
mother. "I picked them up in front of Mrs. B's house," 
replied the little girl. "But they are not yours," said 
the mother, "I want you to put them back where you got \ 
them and tell Mrs. B. you are sorry." The child did ■ 
as directed. Now the stones were of little intrinsic value . 
and it may seem that this mother was making a moun- 
tain out of a mole-hill. I think not. Children have no 
idea of intrinsic values, and these stones were as valuable 
to the little girl as playthings as if they had been pearls. 
They were not hers, and her wise mother taught her a 
most valuable lesson in honesty. It is the little things 
that should be carefully watched and corrected if we are 



420 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK 

to expect honesty in larger things. In the home and in 
the school the child must be taught that he may not 
appropriate the property of another even to the value of 
a pin. This is a lesson to which the school needs to give 
serious attention. So many children are growing up 
with such loose notions of honesty that private grounds 
are invaded, fruit trees and flower gardens robbed, and 
property rights are disregarded. It is no wonder that 
peculation and other forms of stealing come easy to 
many, in later life. They have never learned the first 
principles of honesty. The school room affords abun- 
dant opportunity to instil these principles. A few years 
ago the child laboriously wrote in his copy-book, '* Hon- 
esty is the best policy." He that is honest for poHcy 
sake, is not honest in the best sense. It can be shown 
that it is good poHcy to be honest, but the child must be 
taught a deeper conception of honesty than that. He 
must learn to be honest because it is right, else the moral 
lesson has not been appreciated. 

12. What is the effect of suspicion upon children ? 

It has a tendency to cause them to do the very things 
of which they are suspected. The teacher should trust 
his pupils as far as possible. Many a child has been 
redeemed by being trusted, and so has many a man. It 
is better to err in trusting too far than to be forever 
suspicious. 

7j. What shall the teacher do to inculcate truthfulness f 
First of all he must be himself absolutely truthful in 
act and word. '*I have been deeply pained during the 
last few days to see the number of young men of our city 
who hang about the saloons," said a Sunday School sup- 
erintendent to his school one Sabbath. Imagine the 
effect of that speech when most of those present knew 
that that man was carried home drunk at least once a 



MANNERS AND MORALS 421 

week. It is of no use for a teacher to attempt to teach 
truthfulness, or any other virtue, if he himself is wanting 
in that virtue. A principal of a school under the 
Regents of New York state was notorious in his violation 
of the plain rules of the body over him, although he was 
required to make affidavit that such rules had been 
followed. The fearful result was that almost every pupil 
in that school was untruthful. 

But there must be in addition to the pure life of the 
teacher, definite instruction. Many children need to be 
taught what a lie is, that it applies to acts as well as to 
words. Perhaps they have been taught to lie at home 
and rewarded for it. Great patience should be exercised 
towards such children until they understand the enormi- 
ty of the evil. Children sometimes will act a lie but 
would not tell one. Again they do not regard cheating 
as lying. Pains should be taken to show them that there 
is no essential difference between these forms of lying. 
Oftentimes children lie through fear in order to escape 
punishment. The teacher should point out the wicked- 
ness of lying and encourage the pupils to tell the truth. 
No excuse should be made for "white lies, " for "A lie 
that is half the truth is ever the worst of lies." 

/^. How can children be taught to respect the aged? 

Attention should be called to this virtue, historical 
incidents related illustrating it and the practices of such 
people as the ancient Spartans and the modern Germans 
described. History abounds in many incidents in which 
respect for the aged is treated as one of the highest vir- 
tues. Three little boys were pounding on an abandoned 
boiler in their back yard very much to the annoyance of 
the whole neighborhood After this had gone on for 
several days, a gentleman kindly asked them to cease. 
A few minutes later the father of the boys appeared and 



422 SEELE Y 'S QUESTION BOOK 

said to them, "Boys, you make as much noise on that 
boiler as you please. This is a free country and if you 
can't make enough noise with that pipe, I'll give you the 
hammer." Of course this is a free country — sometimes 
too free — but this man forgot that it is free for the other 
party as well as for himself and his boys. To teach his 
boys to be a nuisance to the neighborhood was bad 
enough; to encourage their selfishness was also evil; but 
the worst wrong was done to the children in teaching 
them to show no respect for older persons. Some par- 
ents are very afraid that their children will lose their 
independence, that they will forget that they are "Young 
America." Too often this expression is nothing but an 
excuse for downright impudence, which needs rebuking 
rather than encouraging. It is beautiful to see children 
in the home and in school trained to respect those older 
than they are, — to see them give up a chair, or yield a 
seat in the car, or allow others to enter before them, or 
perform the many acts of unselfishness, true politeness, 
and respect for older persons of either sex. And such 
training will not make the child less self-reliant or free 
in the truest sense. Moreover, it would be well, not only 
for the individual, but also for us as a nation, if the 
principle discussed above were applied also in our treat- 
ment of those who are placed in authority over us. The 
child should be taught to respect those who are clothed 
with authority whether it be in the home, the school, or 
the state. Such teaching would be moral in the highest 
sense and it would tend to awaken a zeal for civic right- 
eousness. 

75. Show how reverence for law is mculcated. 

We have so many laws that remain unenforced that 
there is a sad lack of respect for the authority of the law. 
This spirit manifests itself not only among children but 
also with adults. Reverence for the law can be inspired 



MANNERS AND MORALS 423 

by the discipline of the school. Let there be but few- 
rules, but enforce those that are necessary strictly and 
impartially. Repeal rules that have become unnecessary. 
Let no obsolete rule be retained. Explain the necessity 
of law in the school and in the State. Wherever many 
people are brought together certain regulations for their 
control and government are essential. No man may be 
a law unto himself, but all must consider the rights of 
others and the demands of society. This is one of the 
highest moral requirements. 

16. What should be taught in regard to public property ? 

The schoolhouse, with its furniture, books, apparatus, 
and other property is committed to the care of the teach- 
er. He owes it to the community as well as to himself 
to see that it is not damaged or destroyed. It often 
occurs that public property is held in too little esteem. 
The attitude of many towards public property as well as 
towards corporations is quite different from their attitude 
towards private property. Men expect higher remunera- 
tion for less service if they hold a public office than if 
employed by a private concern, and to cheat a trolley line 
out of a fare disturbs the conscience but little. It rests 
upon the school to teach sterling honesty in deal- 
ing with large concerns as truly as with private individ- 
uals. And this is essential for the child's sake rather 
than for the sake of the corporation. 

//. What is the moral value of industry f 
Children should be trained to industry, not merely 
"to keep them out of mischief," but as a safeguard 
against vice. The time of danger to child or man is dur- 
ing the unemployed hours. Hence in teaching the child 
to be industrious, he is being taught moral habits. Every 
teacher knows how important it is to the discipline of 
the school that the child shall be kept busy. The ques- 



424 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

tion has a larger significance than the mere maintenance 
of order, it means the fortifying of the child against evil, 
the preparation for life. No idleness should be tolerated 
in the school. 

1 8, What is the moral value of promptness and regular- 
ity? 

The child should be taught that tardiness and irregu- 
larity effect others than himself. "I am the loser, what 
difference does it make?" says the tardy person. It 
makes a great deal of difference that one shall acquire 
such an evil habit both to himself and also to others. 
The individual who is late or irregular interferes with the 
rights of others, the school is disturbed and the progress 
of the whole class interfered with. Business men quickly 
take this into account and will not tolerate such practice. 
Employees who come late to their work are penalized 
with a reduction in wages, and bank directors cut off the 
fee for attendance of such delinquents. It should be 
brought home to every child that he must be punctual 
and regular in his duties, not because the rules of the 
school require it, but because it is right and because the 
laws of successful business require it. 

jp. Show the importance of a proper sense of duty. 

Dr. White declares that the sense of duty is the supreme 
motive of human conduct. He adds further, "It ought 
to go without saying, that no teacher who disregards 
conscience, who treats moral obligation as if it may be a 
delusion, can ever awaken effectively the sense of duty 
in a child. Duty is the call of God. Ought is the ethical 
imperative. It is he alone who feels and honors these 
verities of conduct in his own life, who can stir them into 
vigor in another. Duty incarnate is an inspiration, as 
duty done is its own blessed reward." 



MANNERS AND MORALS 425 

' ' Do what conscience says is right ; 

Do what reason says is best ; 
Do with all your mind and might ; 

Do your duty and be blest." 

The child must be taught a sense of duty, and helped 
to perform that duty however unpleasant it may be. It 
often happens that the richest experiences and the great- 
est blessings grow out of the performance of a duty that 
was very hard and unpleasant. 

20. Why should politeness be taughtf 

Politeness is an evidence of culture, it aids materially 
in attaining success in life, it will save from many 
embarrassing situations, it is an expression of real 
kindness and unselfishness. 

21. Why should the school teach itf 

The school alone reaches all the children, it is forming 
the future citizens of our country, it trains to complete 
manhood. 

22. What are the two phases of politeness ? Define each. 
Its spirit and its form. 

By the spirit of politeness we mean the unselfishness, 
the kindness of heart that seeks to be a blessing to others. 
It may be wholly unconventional and awkward in its 
expression, and yet full of goodness. It is this kind of 
politeness that Max O'Rell meant when he said, "The 
most uncultured American boor is more polite than the 
finest Parisian gentleman." But this conception of 
politeness, while it embraces the noblest idea, it is in- 
sufficient — there must also be the form of politeness. By 
this we mean a knowledge of the conventionalities of 
society and a practice of the same. It is conventional to 
eat in a certain way, to tip the hat at certain times, to 
excuse one's self under certain conditions. We may not 

*See chapter on Politeness in Seeley's "Foundations of Education," p. 57. 



426 SEE LEY'S QUESTION BOOK 

be a law unto ourselves. We must conform to the ordi- 
nary requirements of the people with whom we live. 
Our children need instruction in the common convention- 
alities of life.* Their attention should be called to little 
acts of politeness and they should be taught how to per- 
form them until politeness becomes a habit. Possessed 
with the real spirit of politeness and trained as to the 
conventional forms which ordinary society follows, the 
American youth will have important qualifications for 
success in life. The school, through its great body of 
intelligent and devoted teachers, does not give him less 
than these requirements. 

As I have already remarked, it is not intended, nor is 
it possible to give in these pages a complete ethical code. 
Sufficient illustrations have been given to call attention 
to the importance of the subject of manners and morals, 
and to suggest a method of presentation that will apply 
to all subjects that are worthy of treatment. Patriotism, 
love of home and family, self-respect, cleanliness, grati- 
tude, forgiveness, courage, temperance and many other 
attributes will find a place in the instruction of the school 
and will never cease to be of interest and profit. The 
end of education is moral character. 

*As to details, I must refer to any text -book on morals and manners. I have 
already called attention to Miss Bryson's book, and would also mention Mrs. 
Sherwood's, published by Harper Brothers, New York. 



» 



Outlines, Devices and Recreations 

in United States Geography 

By Inez N. flcFee. 




HIS is one of the most practical and 
helpful manuals on Geography ever 
published. In it, the framework of 
Geography is carefully and accurately 
fitted together and the whole is 
rounded out by numerous references 
to geographical literature, practical 
and historical illustrations, suggestions for class 
management, etc. 

The United States as the home of man is the 
predominant characteristic of its teaching 
throughout, and the resources and advantages 
which each section offers to the people who reside 
therein is set forth in an attractive and forceful 
style. 

These outlines may be used with any text, and 
will appeal at once to any teacher in search for 
ways and means of enlivening her class. 

Price 25 cents. Substantially bound in attrac- 
tive paper cover. 166 pages. 



F. A. Owen Publishing Co^ Publisliers 



€ 



Dansville, N. Y. 



Owen Series of Five Cent Classics 



Best and Cheapest Supplementary Reading. 



FIRST and SECOND GRADES. (Large Type.) 

1. I^ittle Plant People — i. (Nature Stories.) 

2. lyittle Plant People — 2. (Nature Stories.) 

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3. lyittle Workers (Stories of Animals.) 

THIRD and FOURTH GRADES. 

4. Story of Washington. 

5. Story of lyincoln. 

6. Story of Franklin. 

7. Story of Kdison. 

21. Story of the Pilgrims. 

FOURTH and FIFTH QRADES. 

g. The Golden Touch (Hawthorne.) 

10. The Snow Image (Hawthorne.) 

16. Western Pioneers (lyouisiana and the Oregon Country.) 

SIXTH GRADE. 

24. Three Golden Apples (Hawthorne.) 

25. The Miraculous Pitcher (Hawthorne.) 

26. The Minotaur (Hawthorne.) 

11. Rip Van Winkle (Irving.) 

12. l,egend of Sleepy Hollow (Irving.) 

20. The Great Stone Face (Hawthorne.) i 

8. Kingof the Golden River (Ruskin.) 

22. Rab and His Friends. 

SEVENTH GRADE. 

13. Courtship of Miles Standish (I^ongfellow.) 

14. iSvangeline (I,ongfellow.) 

EIQHTH QRADE. 

15. Snowbound (Whittier.) 

17. F)noch Arden (Tennyson.) 

18. Vision of Sir I^aunfal (L,owell.) 

19. Cotter's Saturday Night (Burns.) 

23. The Deserted Village (Goldsmith.) 

Bach number contains 32 pages, printed on good paper and bound 
in strong and attractive covers. Price 5c each, 60c per dozen. Add 2c 
per copy for postage on orders of less than five copies. 

AT TEN CENTS EACH :— Longfellow's Evangeline, Song of 
Hiawatha and Courtship of fliles Standish. Complete, with Notes 
and Plan of Study. The best for class use. 



F. A. OWEN PUBLISHING COMPANY, DANSVILLE, N. Y. 






LEADERS IN THEIR CLASSES 

NORMAL INSTRUCTOR 
TEACHERS' WORLD 

Indispensable to Progressive Teachers. 

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cost $i,oo a year — the Instructor 50c a year, $1.00 for three years. 

PRIMARY PLANS 

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WORLD'S EVENTS 

An Illustrated Monthly Review of the World's News. 

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F.A. OWEN PUBLISHING COMPANY, Dansvffle,N.Y. 



u^ 



LIVING THOUGHTS 



A Series of Three Books of Graded flemory Gems. 
Arranged by Dr^ F. E. Spaulding, Superintendent, and 
Katherine T. Bryce, Supervisor, Public Schools, 
Passaic, N. J. 

Adapted for flemorlzing, Reading, Study. 

The compiler's problem was to arrange sets of selec- 
tions of such uniformly superior quality that every one 
would be worthy of commitment to memory, and at the 
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remainder have been favorably passed upon not only by 
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direct judgment of a large number of children — several 
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Three Books, Kach Book arranged by Grades : 

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Book II — Intermediate — for Grades IV, V and VI. 

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Each book contains about 150 pages. 

Paper, 25 cents. Cloth, 40 cents. 



F. A. OWEN PUBLISHING COMPANY, BANSVILLE, N. Y. 



/f 



^ 



COMPLETE OUTLINE 

in United States History 



By ELJIER S. LANDES, 

Instructor in University of Wooster« (Ohio). 

This book contains a Topical Outline of United 

States History from the earliest prehistoric period down 
to the present time. 

Besides this, it contains 777 Questions and Answers 
on U. S. History, also Tables, Sketches and Nicknames 
of Public rien both past and Present. 

It contains also a Brief History of all the Political 

Parties of the country from the institution of the govern- 
ment down to the present time. The book will be foand 
valuable not only in class use, but also for the teacher or 
student preparing for examination. 

Substantially bound in an attractive paper cover. 150 
Pages. Price 25 Cents. 



F. A. OWEN PUBLISHING CO., DANSVILLE, N. Y. 



AFH 2^l'im5i 






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